The Imperial Cult in the Latin West: Studies in the Ruler Cult of the Western Provinces. Volume Three: Provincial Cult; Part One: Institution and Evolution.

The Imperial Cult in the Latin West: Studies in the Ruler Cult of the Western Provinces. Volume Three: Provincial Cult; Part One: Institution and Evolution. By Duncan Fishwick. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2002. Pp. xvi + 259. Cloth, $137.00.

The Imperial Cult in the Latin West: Studies in the Ruler Cult of the Western Provinces. Volume Three: Provincial Cult; Part Two: The Provincial Priesthood. By Duncan Fishwick. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2002. Pp. 324. Cloth, $144.00.

The Imperial Cult in the Latin West: Studies in the Ruler Cult of the Western Provinces. Volume Three: Provincial Cult; Part Three: The Provincial Centre; Provincial Cult. By Duncan Fishwick. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2004. Pp. 397. Cloth, $150.00.

The Imperial Cult in the Latin West: Studies in the Ruler Cult of the Western Provinces. Volume Three: Provincial Cult; Part Four: Bibliography, Indices, Addenda. By Duncan Fishwick. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2005. Pp. 256. Cloth, $136.00.

This is an astonishingly thorough treatment of the question concerning the divinization of the Roman Emperor in the West (France, Germany, Spain, Britian). The course of this process in the Greek East is well charted, and in this series of books Fishwick accomplishes that for the Latin West. In Part One of this four volume set, Institution and Evolution, Fishwick relies mostly on Latin inscriptions to show that the idea and impetus for foundation of the imperial cult, and its promotion, came almost exclusively from the top. This was accomplished through the dissemination of legal and ritual prescriptions as well as of iconographic or architectural models. Says Fishwick, "The overall impression one has in retrospect, then, is of central orchestration and control" (Part One, p. 219).

Fishwick illustrates how this process was a gradual one, occurring in stages over a couple of hundred years. The first stage occurs in 31 BCE-14 CE (Fishwick has the unfortunate practice of using B.C. and A.D.)--the rule of Augustus. In this period, we find evidence of exclusively civic cults developing into worship of the living Emperor, but no evidence of regional, or broader, cults, councils or priests. The second stage brings, for the first time, the deified Emperor (14-69 CE)--from Tiberius to the start of the Flavian Dynasty. In the third stage (69-96 CE), the Flavians move towards the standardization of the imperial cult, evidenced by the disappearance of local variation. This stage also sees the dual worship of emperors living and deified, a practice that will continue in other periods in many locations. The fourth stage (96 -193 CE), under the Antonines, is characterized by extension and consolidation. There are minor modifications made that reflect the political needs of a particular dynasty, as well as the extension of the cult across the Danube. Finally (193-284 CE), in the revolution that leads to the Severan dynasty, the focus turns exclusively towards worship of the living emperor.

In Part Two, Fishwick's focus turns from the evolution of the Imperial cult in the Roman west to the nature of its provincial priesthoods. Fishwick opens, naturally enough, with a discussion and presentation of the charter of Gallia Narbonensis--the longest and most detailed surviving account of the rights and responsibilities of provincial priests (flamines). Though this is our best piece of evidence for this period, Fishwick reasonably suggests that the rules and regulations laid out in it are likely standard across the provinces. Indeed, the evidence he amasses for the nature of the priesthood in the provinces of the Roman west will show sufficient echoes and reflections with the Lex Narbonensis to make this a fair assumption.

In 16 chapters in this part, Part Two looks at sixteen provinces in the Roman west: Tres Galliae, Hispania citerior, Lusitania, Gallia Narbonensis, Africa Proconsularis, Mauretania Caesariensis, Mauretania Tingitana, Sardinia, Baetica, Alpes Cottiae, Alpes Maritimae, Dacia, Pannonia superior, Pannonia inferior, Moesia inferior, and Dalmatia. Where the material evidence allows (which is often but not always), Fishwick addresses the same topics for each province: the epigraphic record and other sources, honorific statues, priestly titles, origin and social background of provincial priests, their careers, the priestly office and the title by which the priest is known, provincial priestesses, federal and provincial officials, chronology of that provincial priesthood, office and duties, administrative officials.

Though the evidence is lacking in some provinces and plentiful in others, Fishwick argues that there is enough of it over all to allow for tentative conclusions to be drawn about the provincial priesthood. Though there are some literary sources (such as Livy), inscriptions, usually found on statues and monuments honoring formers holders of the office, provide the most information about these offices. At other times, a priest might leave a record of his (or her) career, or s/he might leave a votive inscription that offers us details of his/her office and career.

To qualify for the provincial priesthood, one was expected to be a citizen of good character, resident in the province, supportive of Rome, at least twenty-five years of age, and most importantly, wealthy. The provincial priesthood appears to have been preceded by a lengthy career in municipal positions (and sometimes military careers), and was probably considered the height of one's career. What followed one's post as provincial priest is difficult to tell most of the time, but at any rate probably paled in comparison. A provincial priest would be elected by a council of which he was a member, and while there is little evidence of political meddling, the possibility of influence cannot be ruled out. A provincial priest had both so-called secular and religious duties--to guide and preside over the assembly as well as over the annual liturgy in the first place, and to fund it in the second. There is evidence that women acted ceremoniously as priestesses, at least in conjunction with a flamen (known then as a flaminica) if not under a sacerdos. Usually priestesses were the wives of flamines, but occasionally they held office independently, though never as an equal to a man. And finally, there were administrative positions supporting the provincial priesthood: archivists, bookkeepers, comptrollers.

In Part Three of this four part volume, Fishwick treats two separate issues in each half of the book: evidence of provincial centers in the provincial cult, and the shape of cultic practices. When looking at the evidence of provincial centers, he considers evidence from Tarraco, Emerita, Corduba, Lugdunum, Narbo Martius, Camulodunum, Gorsium, Sarmizegetusa, and Carthage. Even though evidence can be drawn only from seven good sites, Fishwick finds that there is some consistency, though no set plans, among the various provincial centers. Each center likely had a permanent headquarters where cultic activities could occur and where the provincial council could hold (at least) annual meetings. Cultic headquarters tended to be located at (or very near to) the governor's residence. The focal point of provincial center was an altar or temple, and equally common were facilities for entertainment of large numbers, such as amphitheatres, theatres, and circuses, even if they were not always in the immediate proximity of the temple itself. The functions of the provincial center were obviously to offer a central location for the worship of the emperor, but also to provide a center for administration' and recreation (evidenced in landscaped gardens for visitors). And finally, the provincial centers, with their monuments, inscriptions, and statues were instruments for imperial ideology.

In the second half of Part Three, Fishwick turns his attention to the shape of cultic practices in the provincial cult. Here he looks at regalia (drawn from bas-reliefs and descriptions in literary sources), the cultic calendar (of which there is little direct evidence in the west), rites (such as sacrifices and processions), dedications (which are abundant and varied) and games (including Christian martyrdoms). None of this evidence, however, allows Fishwick to draw more than the most conjectural and basic conclusions about what actually happened in the provincial cult. In other words, the evidence attests clearly that cult happened, that regalia was worn, that events occurred regularly, etc., all of which is very obvious, but more detail than that must be drawn by analogy from the east, where evidence is more abundant.

Part Four of this series contains bibliography, indices and addenda. While every other book ends with bibliography pertinent to that part, Part Four contains a cumulative (43 page) bibliography. What follows are also cumulative of the first three parts: name and subject index (87 pages), places and localities index, and indices for literary sources, inscriptions, coins, and Greek and Latin phrases. This book closes with addenda and corrections for all three preceding parts.

Parts 1-3 of this four part series contain a wealth of pictures and inscriptions. The first volume contains twenty plates, some of which are inscriptions, while others show architectural details; the second volume contains fifty-one plates of inscriptions, many with the text of the inscriptions reconstructed; the third volume, 113 plates, showing inscriptions, coins, architectural plans, and other material realia. Even the final Part offers seven additional plates among the addenda, for a total of 191 plates in these four parts.

This is most definitely a scholar's series: foreign language texts are always untranslated. Another feature often associated with scholarly writing, but which need not be, is a density of writing that makes for difficult reading. But these are, admittedly, complaints more of style than substance. When it comes to the latter, Fishwick is consistently careful to draw conclusions that can be supported by the evidence, and frequently admits when the evidence does not admit to any conclusion. This is a very dense and thorough treatment of the imperial cult in the lesser known Western reaches of the Roman Empire.

Zeba A. Crook

Carleton University

Ottawa, ON, Canada, K1S 4Y7