The Impact of Teachers' Individualized Practices on Gifted Students in Rural, Heterogeneous Classrooms.

Several factors have increased teachers' frustrations in the regular classroom as they try to meet the needs of students with varying levels of ability. Limited educational funding, the attitude that gifted students can do without special services, and a push for increased heterogeneous grouping have all contributed to the teacher's problem. The Mustard Seed Project was developed and supported by a grant from the Javits Gifted and Talented Students Education program to train teachers to differentiate for student needs by curricular adaptations. The training for teachers modeled the process of individualization for each learner's level, pace and style. A follow-up support system of human and material resources was implemented to sustain the teachers through the difficult transition required of change. The sites participating in this study were all rural, ethnically diverse, and economically disadvantaged. Profiles of six gifted fifth-graders were developed using interviews and classroom observations. The research questions sought to determine the extent of the gifted child's intellectual challenge, exploration of in-depth selected topics of interest, and social and emotional satisfaction in adapted classrooms.

Teachers who understand the wider needs of gifted students are frustrated in their efforts to meet these needs, particularly in the regular classroom. Limited funds and the attitude that persists those gifted students can do without special services are partly responsible. Another major alarm is the push for heterogeneous grouping of students, in which case the classroom teacher either differentiates curriculum according to student needs, abilities, and interests or teaches all students as if they are the same.

It appears that the majority of classroom teachers are adopting the second strategy. Reis (1992) reported the results of a survey by the National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented that showed only minor modifications for gifted students being made by regular classroom teachers in the 7,000 third and fourth grade classrooms surveyed (Archambault, Westberg, Brown, Hallmark, Zhang, & Emmons, 1993). Further in-depth study of 46 such classrooms indicated that only 16% of the instructional activities reflected differentiation for gifted students (Westberg, Archambault, Dobyns, Salvin, 1993).

In the belief that individualization of instruction for learners of different abilities would result in more appropriately meeting the needs of gifted students, and following a pilot study with results indicating that very little individualization is taking place in regular classrooms in rural settings, Mustard Seed Project (Johnsen & Haensly, 1993) was developed and supported by a Javits Gifted and Talented Students' Educational Grant. In response to the need for the retraining of teachers toward more learner-focused instruction, a two-week training program emphasizing curricular adaptations for individualization in the areas of students' content, pace, environment, and preference was developed and implemented (Johnsen, 1995). In order to emphasize the importance of individualized instruction for learners, teachers themselves selected content areas in which to focus; rates at which to work; auditory, visual, or tactile learning modalities; and individual, partner, or group formats. When individualization of goals was incorporated, some teachers chose goals involving minor instructional changes, such as changing the classroom environment, while others worked toward making major changes in teaching practices, such as adapting the rate and content of materials to match different learners' needs. It was hoped that by allowing the teacher participants from six rural schools to individualize their own training in areas such as content, rate, preference, style, goals, mentorships, and release days, that teachers would then realize the powerful impact that individualization of instruction can have on learners.

The Study

This study explores the impact of teachers' individualized practices with fifth-grade gifted students in rural classrooms containing students with varying levels of abilities. Profiles of six gifted students were developed using interviews and classroom observation. Interview questions focused on the types and extent of:

* intellectual challenges for gifted students in classrooms taught by teachers trained through Mustard Seed Project (MSP),

* themes prevalent in discussions with rural gifted students concerning their educations,

* students' use of the language of learning, and

* social and emotional satisfaction in classrooms in which teachers were individualizing instruction according to interests needs, and abilities of gifted learners.

Methods and Procedures

The researcher spent more than 150 hours observing teachers while they were being trained to individualize instruction in the areas of content, rate, preference, and environment. She made weekly visits to the classrooms in which these teacher participants taught for over a period of a year and a half, observing for approximately 200 hours to determine the extent to which teachers met their goals for individualization and the effects on students. Her prolonged engagement, background as a classroom teacher, and role as research assistant on the Javits Grant moved her into the position of participant observer. Teacher and student interviews, observations, and product analysis were used to collect data. Data were analyzed using the constant comparative method outlined in Glaser and Strauss (1967) to develop descriptive portraits of six gifted students. With the diversity of interests exhibited by these students and the different levels and types of differentiation being implemented in instruction by these MSP teachers, it was felt that these six classrooms would provide rich sources of information concerning the impact of teachers' individualized practices on gifted students in rural, heterogeneous classrooms.

Profiles

Alison

Alison is a tall, stocky girl with a long blond braid. She is the youngest child in her family with three adult brothers. Her mother recently remarried adding new older stepsiblings to the family. Alison's grandmother died within the last year. Perhaps as a result of the recent changes in her family, Alison is described by teachers and staff as being emotional, sensitive, and lacking in social skills. Further compounding her problems have been instances of ostracism by her classmates in previous years. Alison is a very bright young lady, with interests in art, animals (typical in rural areas), research, reading, and collecting. Her gifts lie in the areas of reading and language arts. She talks of enjoying projects that are "realistic" in nature, such as taking the perspective of a geologist in studying caves. Her disgust at having to do worksheets in earlier grades is strongly expressed.

Ms. Tergo is a supportive, nurturing teacher who believes in facilitating the development of her students. She runs her classroom in a problem-solving mode with students working in small groups to create authentic products such as working weather instruments and flower gardens. The supportive family-like atmosphere evidenced in the classroom environment is cited as one of the strengths of rural schools (O'Connell & Hagans, 1985; Peltier, Foldesey, Holman, & Matranga, 1989). In Ms. Tergo's classroom, students demonstrate respect for one another and for their teacher. While there is no separate level of challenge for gifted students, Ms. Tergo does conduct her classes on a higher level of intellectual challenge than one primarily based on knowledge and comprehension. In addition, she has enrichment activities offered in the forms of learning centers and computer programs. When time allows, Ms. Tergo encourages student research into areas of interest, pursued at the individual student's rate, and with products developed in the style the student feels most appropriate. This individualize approach is not integrated into the curriculum as MSP teaches, but is used when the regular curriculum has been covered and time allows.

As a result of Ms. Tergo's nurturing interactive style, Alison feels supported and happy. With the classroom emphasis on respect and with the flexible, small group format that often serves as the modus operandi in the classroom, she appears (for the first time) to be satisfied in her relationships with other students and positive in her attitudes toward school. Although when questioned, Alison did not offer the name of a particular same-age peer at school as a regular companion, but mentioned instead the name of a friend at church. Still, Alison is able to work effectively with classmates, improving her own socialization skills in this manner. (The importance of religion and the "church family" is often a characteristic of rural communities). Ms. Tergo has also commented on Alison's new assertiveness in expressing her opinions on topics discussed in class, which indicates an increase in confidence, feelings of acceptance, and self-esteem.

Ms. Tergo's individualized instructional approach through the computer program Encarta creates sporadic opportunities for Alison to use the computer extensively to research topics of interest at an advanced level. Ms Tergo's use of the language of learning has helped Alison gain some control over her own learning, as evidenced in her descriptions of "realistic" projects. She apparently enjoys and appreciates the need for authentic assessment activities with authentic assessment. These teaching techniques have led to Alison's general happiness in school and increased confidence in herself as a learner.

It appears that Alison's placement into Ms. Tergo's classroom has had a positive affect on both her social-emotional status and her learning. One can only guess at the results that might be gained when Ms. Tergo moves to the optimal level of incorporating individualized research as an integrated part of her curriculum.

Tommy

Tommy, a Hispanic student from a close-knit family of father, mother, and one younger sister, attends a rural school with no gifted program. His prominent characteristics are a sophisticated sense of humor and a vivid imagination with talents in writing and illustration. He has written poetry that has been published, but primarily writes entertaining stories with vivid descriptions, fanciful plots, and colorful illustrations. Tommy expresses interest and curiosity about people's behavior and lives, computers and their eventual capacities, and all topics related to reading, writing, and acting. He demonstrates gifted behavior in language arts and the domains of interpersonal and intrapersonal psychological domains (Gardner, 1983). He has high ability in math, but expresses no interest in that area.

Tommy's teacher, Ms. Jaynes, has made little adaptation in her classroom for individual differences in ability and interest. Her goals at training focused on changing the environment in her classroom by having a more interactive arrangement so students might work in groups more easily. Her teaching style is the more traditional, whole group, teacher-as-lecturer arrangement. Assignments are written on the board with specified time allotments. Tommy can quickly complete the grade level assignments and get back to his writing without any special accommodations. Ms. Jaynes allows Tommy and Michael, a new student in the class who shares Tommy's interests, to interact with one another and share ideas and projects. The one computer in the room is apparently not to be used by the students.

While Ms. Jaynes MSP training and successful goal implementation might have resulted in a warmer, more collaborative classroom environment for her students, one must question the extent of the impact of this implementation on Tommy's school experience. Expectations are that Tommy must complete the regular class assignments before spending time in areas of his gifts and talents, and that the development of these gifts beyond grade-level expectations is left entirely to him.

When questioned about his school experiences, Tommy had little to say. Because Ms. Jaynes did not talk to students about nor adjust her teaching techniques in the areas of rate, advanced research, authentic products, or accelerated learning, then Tommy did not speak of these adaptations. Perhaps because his area of giftedness, writing, is the most easily accommodated in school, he did not say anything negative about school conditions stifling his academic growth. Or perhaps Tommy, with no gifted resource class to attend, has no basis for comparison. It would be difficult to talk about special opportunities if one does not know what they are nor have the language with which to describe them. It would be difficult to ask to use the computer as a method of writing extension, either through composing in Microsoft word or reading, researching, and interviewing writers through the Internet, if individualization of instruction and acceleration have no place in this classroom. It appears that the conditions in Tommy's school environment have left him without the language and tools needed to become an active participant in his own education.

Cross and Stewart (1995) report that lack of opportunities for students' personal development and lack of adjustment for student's rates of learning are real concerns for rural schools. It seems that an individualized program involving curriculum acceleration, mentoring from an expert in the area of writing, and advanced classes in writing would have been appropriate for a student such as Tommy. While Ms. Jayne's adaptations may have created a warmer, more interactive environment, the development of Tommy's gifts and talents is not being facilitated. Depth and complexity are not being added to his curriculum. Tommy's academic needs are not being met.

Beyond the frustration with academic provisions, the rural environment might also have affected Tommy's social and emotional development. When asked, "What is important in this school?" Tommy answered, "Football, sports." This is often the case in rural schools. With Tommy's interest in academic studies and particularly in the production of poetry and stories, this glorification of athletes might be hard to take. Silverman (1993) reports on research results indicating that peer groups of boys tolerate more individuality than peer groups of girls. Either athleticism or humor will protect gifted boys from ostracism by peers. Without one of these traits, males are extremely vulnerable to ridicule and rejection. Fortunately for Tommy, his sophisticated sense of humor is now and should in the future protect him in the classroom, even though his emotional well being may be somewhat affected by this valuing of athletes over academicians.

Heather

Heather is an only child whose mother and father have been divorced for several years. Heather has attended this particular rural school for only a year. She and her mother have moved several times before settling down in this community. Heather's father has remarried and lives elsewhere, and her mother is planning to remarry shortly, adding a thirteen-year-old stepsister as well as a new stepfather to the family. Last year, when asked to describe herself, Heather referred to herself as "mean and snobby. "This negative self-description was attributed to the turmoil in her personal life. Now Heather says she feels happier about herself and her life.

Heather describes herself as poor in spelling, having a slight stutter, very good at sports and artistic projects, and interested in science and history. She reads constantly, but hates her reading class because of the "moody" teacher. Heather's observation about school is that many teachers ignore the gifted students, working only with slower students and leaving the gifted to learn on their own. Heather reports that she knows everything in fifth grade math and is bored. Her two teachers, who attended MSP training, have contracted with her as a way to individualize in math and science. The contracts, however, are limited to enrichment activities at grade level rather than on advanced topics. Heather feels that, while fun to do and more interesting than the regular math and science curriculum, the contracted work is not really very challenging for her.

Heather is probably right in her assessment of the situation. Although her teachers are attempting to individualize instruction for Heather, the enrichment is not what she needs. She is ready for studies in advanced topics in some areas, and needs complexity and depth rather than breadth of topic. Her boredom in school may result in decreased motivation for learning.

Heather is also experiencing social and emotional problems, with self-esteem and interactions with peers being problematic. Her devaluing of herself is evidenced in her own description of herself as "mean and snobby". She interacts effectively on a limited basis with classmates, but is experiencing some peer pressure and antagonism. Heather reports that there is pressure to hide her giftedness -- people call her "geek" and she is told "you're stupid" when she answers questions in class.

Heather's social and emotional problems may result from a combination of Heather's own attitude problems, family interactions and membership changes, and her fairly recent move into the community. Spicker, Southern, and Davis (1990) speak of the stability in the population experienced by these [rural] children compared to the mobility common in urban settings. Many of the schoolchildren in Heather's classroom have been friends practically since birth. As a relative newcomer, Heather will have to make some attitude adjustments and reach out to fellow students in order to instigate friendships. She could use some help in these areas.

Heather's increased happiness with school may have to do with the limited curricular adaptations she is receiving this year. With the enrichment work she is receiving through contracting, she is receiving differentiated curriculum. Although it is not the accelerated curriculum she needs, it is interesting and fun, and it does pay public tribute to her advanced academic abilities. In her current fragile social and emotional state, this alone is helpful.

Katy

Katy, a friendly, attractive blonde is the third child in a family with four children. Her father recently became an entrepreneur, supplying food products to health stores, and her mother helps with the business. Katy has won awards for creative and persuasive writing, as well as drawing. She loves science and horses and watches the world news on television as a way of staying abreast of world issues. Katy is eager for challenge as demonstrated in her comments: "We need higher level books (in the school and local libraries). I wish school were a little harder. Teachers should recognize GTs (gifted and talented students) and give them challenging work."

It appears that Katy's current teachers, the same math and science teachers as Heather, are giving her opportunities to advance in her academic studies, as well as the language to use to get what she needs in order to learn. Katy spoke enthusiastically about having work this year adapted for her rate of learning and of contracting for studies in her areas of interest. Apparently, in former years this has not been the case.

Katy is having problems in the social and emotional realms. She describes inequalities in expectations for males and females in this rural setting, saying "In PE the boys have a higher standard ... They're [boys are] noisy, moving around, hitting, calling people names." Her statements suggest this behavior is accepted in classrooms as normal. The research of Sadker and Sadker (1994) confirms that boys receive a disproportionate amount of attention in the classroom, often as much as 8:1, with aggressive behaviors providing the catalyst for this attention. Girls are expected to be quieter, more cooperative, and neater, receiving praise for such compliance. As a result of being socialized to watch and wait for the teachers' attention, girls often do not get the kind of specific feedback needed to improve their effort when confronted with more difficult material. Katy is negatively experiencing the disproportionate amount of teacher attention. Eventually, this could cause Katy to simply quit competing and give up, becoming a passive receptacle for knowledge, rather than an active learner.

Katy also discussed the social consequences of being in the GT pullout program, observing that "some people are touchy" about it. "They say `stop bragging' or `you think you're so smart'." When Katy was observed in a class in which the teacher had divided students into teams of boys against girls, she answered 7 of 10 questions for her team. The boys complained, "The girls are getting the easier questions. She's [the teacher is] giving it [the winning of the competition] to them. Give us another chance like the girls." If this negative attention continues, Kate may consciously decide to hide her giftedness in order to fit in socially (Kerr, 1994).

When asked, "What is important at this school?" Katy, like Tommy at a different school, answered "Football, sports." Katy went on to remark that the football team at her school had new uniforms, using money that could have been better spent, in her opinion. Perhaps she was once again referring to the need for more and higher level books in the library. Perhaps this is, to her, just one more situation in which males got the most attention. At this time, perhaps because of her successes in academic areas and her MSP teacher's use of both individualization and the language of learning, Katy demonstrates ownership in her learning experiences as she struggles to make others aware of her needs.

Emily

Emily is a vivacious, friendly, and confident girl. She is an only child whose parents are divorced, remarrying others. Emily says she has a good relationship with both sets of parents and feels very supported by all family members. Many students in rural communities speak of strong family ties and support. Emily is a voracious reader, likes social studies, enjoys participating in 4H activities that involve her horse, and has extensive collections of various objects. Emily spends half of the day in Mr. Mann's social studies and language arts classes and half in Ms. Rose's math and science classes.

Mr. Mann uses learner contracts as a standard teaching strategy for all students. This teaching technique allows gifted children to investigate areas of interest at more advanced levels, creating appropriate levels of intellectual challenge and student directed rates of learning. Students often work on individualized plans based on their particular interests in the content being studied. Emily thrives under these learner conditions and the open, encouraging environment of the classroom. Mr. Mann's facilitative teaching style encourages the risk-taking so important to gifted students, and enables Emily to operate, with his support, in an intellectual level just beyond her individual capacity-Vygotsky's "zone of proximal development" (1978, p.86). When Mr. Mann asked Emily and Scott to use Bloom's Taxonomy of Higher Level Thinking Skills to structure the activities in their learning packets, they were not sure what he meant or how they should go about this project. However, with the help of Mr. Mann's consultations and problem solving sessions, they were able to clarify the concepts and to put them into practice. Each student demonstrated their valuing of this experience and their pride in accomplishing the tasks set forth for them.

Scott

Scott is a reserved, rather serious boy. He is the youngest of four brothers who are all adults now. Scott's passion is science. He is interested in biology, geology, and chemistry. These interests he primarily pursues outside of school due to the advanced level of his interest. He identified the supports he has in his life as being his family, Boy Scouts, his computer, and Mr. Mann, one of his teachers.

Scott speaks with enthusiasm about Mr. Mann's class, saying that he had become a better writer under Mr. Mann's tutelage, learning "how to bring out the comprehension and details at the same time." He praised Mr. Mann as someone who encouraged and challenged him, giving him opportunities to do advanced activities and learn in his areas of interest. Scott did not volunteer any information about his other teacher, who teaches science, usually in a large-group format with learning centers being used for enrichment. It is particularly illuminating that Scott, whose passion is science, named the Bloom's Taxonomy reading packet development as his favorite school experience.

Mr. Mann's use of the language of learning, as well as his use of individualization of instruction, was evident in Scott's oral and written discussions of school. Scott expressed a fully articulated appreciation for the principles of individualization in a paper he wrote visualizing the school's needs for the twenty-first century. He described students working at their own paces and choosing topics of interest to study. He illustrated his understanding of the value of connected interdisciplinary learning when he observed that "all lessons learned will be connected in some way." Scott envisions schools in which students are not moved along by grade placement, but "... are allowed to go on to any grade they are comfortable in so that they can learn at their own rate of learning. For example, they could be seven years old and be at a 6th grade learning level." He specifies a further differentiation by abilities, suggesting, "Students attend classes according to their intellectual strengths or weaknesses. For example, a student might be in a High School equivalent reading class and a fourth grade equivalent math class and an eighth grade science class." Mr. Mann's use of learning terminology, as well as his flexible grouping and individualized instruction, enabled Scott to envision a Utopian school in which learning is individualized by interest, rate, preference, environment, and ability.

Discussion

Intellectual challenges for gifted students

To discuss the results of this study, one must revisit the research questions guiding the study. The first research topic concerned the types and extent of intellectual challenges for gifted students in classrooms taught by teachers trained through MSP. This question must be answered by referring again to MSP's emphasis on individualization. MSP training, in its effort to underscore the importance of individualized instruction for students, was itself individualized for and by teacher participants. Teachers chose content to focus on, rate of learning, learning modalities, and preferred environments. Teachers also chose how to individualize instruction, when, where, with whom, and to what extent. The answer to question one, then, is that there were varying degrees of individualization occurring through the use of contracts, learning centers, individualized projects, problem-solving activities, higher-level thinking activities, and computer programs.

In several classrooms, minor adaptations toward individualization were documented, such as a rearrangement of the classroom environment to facilitate more student interaction. Even this modest change encouraged more group discussions and activities, more risk-taking behaviors, and in the case of Tommy, a chance to interact with another student with advanced interests and abilities such as his. In other classrooms, teachers incorporated learning centers and computer programs. Those who were willing to let learner interest guide content, learner rates guide pace, and learner preferences guide the choices of instructional style, allowed students to individualize and manage their own learning. Others, unwilling or unable to let go of teacher control, made choices for students in some of these areas, yet allowed individualization to some extent through these instructional techniques. Those who used computer programs and learning centers incorporated as integrated parts of the curriculum, instead of as enrichment activities filling time once the regular curriculum was completed, met gifted learners' needs more consistently and at higher levels of learning.

Individualized research projects was another method some MSP teachers used to challenge gifted students. Again, some teacher maintained some degree of control, while others let students make choices of topic, rate, style, and environment. Teachers such as Mr. Mann were highly effective in challenging gifted students through individual research projects. These projects were often outgrowths of previous student learning, areas of passion, or real-life problems needing solutions. Many involved the depth and complexity important for gifted students. Many involved advanced topics. Mr. Mann worked with gifted students, as opposed to leaving them to learn on their own. He discussed issues and problems with them, often raising and supporting their levels of operation through advanced studies, as evidenced in his work with both Emily and Scott.

Intellectual growth and challenge were also fostered by teachers' use of the language of learning. This metalinguistic technique allowed students to gain more control over their learning, to ask for educational processes and materials their instruction was lacking, and to share educational activities with others speaking the same language. The results of this shared language of learning will be discussed in another section.

Impacts of Rural Settings

With all six students in the study being educated in rural schools, similar themes impacting educations ran through their discussions. The second research question considered the impact of the rural setting on the educations of these students. According to Spicker, Southern, and Davis (1990), the stability in the population experienced by these children, compared to mobility common in urban settings, is an indicator of life in rural areas. Four of the six students in the study spoke of close friendships with fellow classmates. These students interacted with a variety of others in a comfortable and natural way. According to research, one of the noteworthy characteristics of rural schools is how well a diverse ethnic and racial group of students work and play together. Tommy, a Hispanic student, was a valued asset academically in his classroom, and with his unique sense of humor, was a friend to his peers. Heather, a newcomer to the area, was experiencing some difficulty establishing close friendships with classmates. Family changes and other personal problems were contributing to her problems. Alison has had previous friendship problems, but is slowing becoming a part of the friendship group in the classroom. She, like most rural children, was already enjoying acceptance by others through her church. Research indicates that family membership, church affiliation, and participation in community activities such as Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, and 4-H are valued interactions in rural communities. All six students in this study verified both activity in and valuing of these organizations. Each student also spoke enthusiastically about having family members supporting efforts in pursuing interests and gathering information for projects. Having this stability and sense of belonging in the classroom and community provided the social and emotional support necessary for these gifted students to concentrate on educations.

Researchers cite strengths of rural schools as: (1) supportive family-like atmospheres, (2) generally favorable teacher to student ratios, (3) potential abilities of administrators to mobilize smaller, more manageable teaching staffs to make instructional improvements, and (4) possibilities for implementing innovative teaching practices (O'Connell & Hagans, 1985; Peltier, Foldesey, Holman, & Matranga, 1989). The fact that MSP teachers voluntarily gave up two weeks of summer vacation to attend training speaks for their interest and motivation toward making instructional changes, as well as, in some cases, to the positive rapport between teachers and campus administrators. Ms. Tergo's classroom, with its interactive, family-style format, fully supported Alison's development. Ms. Jayne's movement toward a more interactive environment allowed Tommy to work with another student with similar interests and abilities, while Mr. Mann's facilitative, learner-focused teaching gave Emily and Scott the support and freedom needed to take risks, tackle higher level learning objectives, and select problems and projects to explore independently. All six participants clearly felt that certain teachers were supportive of their interests and goals, and all used the "classroom is like a family" metaphor to describe climates and relationships in their schools.

The importance placed on football is another characteristic of rural, Southern towns. It is not surprising that three of the participants, from three different school districts, spoke of its importance. In one of these districts, the whole elementary school population left campus and walked quite a distance to join those at the pep rally before each high school game. This glorification of athletes and the time taken away from academics to pay homage affected participants at all campuses. In addition, Kate resented the money spent in this area; money she felt could have been better spent buying more advanced books and materials for the schools. Tommy's concerns aligned with Silverman's report (1993) that athleticism and humor are the two attributes that protect the gifted boy from ostracism by peers. Fortunately, Tommy's unique humor was protecting him from ridicule and rejection.

The Language of Learning

The third research issue centered on the language of learning. At the time of the training, MSP personnel were unaware of the importance the language of learning used in the project would take on for teacher participants and student learners. Intuitively, many of the MSP teachers have exposed students to terminology describing the processes of learning. It was apparent from the interviews with the gifted students in the study that those who could talk about the processes of learning had more control over their own learning. Most of the students talked about rate adjustments. Those who worked in independent studies and research projects expressed appreciation for being allowed to choose topics of interest, learning styles, rates, and product presentation formats. Some spoke of contracting for work, individual versus group arrangements, authentic products and assessment, and pretesting. Emily and Scott talked about their use of Bloom's Taxonomy, showing an understanding of higher levels of thinking.

Katy's comment about the emphasis on football indicates that these students are now making evaluations about decisions made by others impacting their educations. Having experienced education as active learners and having acquired the language of learning, these students now have the motivation and the vocabulary to take control of their learning. They can now ask for what they need in the language understood by decision-makers. They can also motivate, assist, and collaborate with one another using this shared language. Through the teachers' use of the language of learning in their interactions with these students and through their work to create learner-focused classrooms, they have given the students both the motivation and the tools for shaping their own educations. Future attempts to change the methods of teaching need to give overt attention to the power of shared language.

Social and Emotional Satisfaction through Individualized Instruction

The fourth research topic in this study focused on the social and emotional satisfaction of students in classrooms in which teachers are individualizing instruction according to the interests, needs, and abilities of gifted students. It is the belief of MSP project developers that individualization of instruction for learners of different abilities will result in more appropriately meeting both the academic and affective needs of gifted learners. Few teachers in the project individualized to the maximum extent in spite of an intellectual understanding of the primary goal of MSP, that of maximizing individualized instruction of students in an integrated curriculum. Instructional interests, abilities, entry levels, and MSP's modus operandi of individualization allowed teachers to set their own goals. Most individualized instruction occurred only at certain times or through certain instructional activities, such as learning centers, computer programs, and contracts for independent studies upon the completion of required curriculum studies. Some teachers changed only classroom environments. Students expressed recognition of and appreciation for individualized instruction whenever it was facilitated.

In his visualization of schools for the future, Scott reflected Mr. Mann's fully operational conception of individualization of instruction for students.

Both Emily and Scott enthusiastically approved of Mr. Mann's instructional style, expressing pride and satisfaction in their academic growth and classroom socialization. His individualization of content allowed them to embrace academic challenges as they pursued topics of their own choosing. His facilitation of their learning supported their academic growth in a safe, risk-free environment. These factors encouraged active learning, student control, and social and emotional satisfaction. Katy's teacher also uses individualization as a way for Katy to advance in her academic studies. While Katy would like to see teacher expectations and interactions with students equalized on a gender basis, she still expresses emotional satisfaction with her learning.

Students whose teachers individualized to a lesser extent expressed emotional satisfaction garnered through participation in the particular individualized activities. All expressed satisfaction with academic growth during times when individualization was occurring. Ms. Tergo's use of independent research projects involving the computer system Encarta are seen by Alison as rare opportunities in which she can explore topics of interest at an advanced level.

Heather and Tommy expressed little or no satisfaction with their educational experiences. While Heather's teachers attempted to individualize instruction through enrichment exercises, Heather's need for advanced level materials made this intervention ineffective. She felt somewhat frustrated by and bored with school. In Tommy's case, while Ms. Jayne's changed classroom environment encouraged students' interactions and created a warmer climate for learning, her lack of individualization of instruction left him with neither the words to use nor the challenging experiences with which to compare his education. Fortunately for him, his gifts in writing allow him to create pleasurable experiences for himself. While others were not advancing the development of his gift of writing, perhaps his own pleasure will sustain him until appropriate instruction is given.

Conclusions and Implications

In asking whether rural, gifted students might be served in a classroom of students with varying abilities without special grouping in a resource setting, the answer is a very tentative "yes." With the exception of the football emphasis, the rural setting contributes positively to educational interactions. The needs of these gifted students can be met in the regular classroom only if certain conditions are met, however. These conditions are as follow: (1) the regular classroom teacher must understand personally the benefits of an individualized education and must be highly motivated to use individualization as an instructional technique, (2) the classroom teacher must be willing to give control over learning to the students themselves, (3) the teacher must understand the academic, social, and emotional needs of gifted learners and be prepared to support these needs, (4) the classroom teacher must receive proper training in individualization techniques in order to acquire the skills necessary for implementation, and (5) the regular classroom teacher must facilitate the development of a shared language of learning among students and instructors.

It appears that MSP's emphasis on individualization for teachers as well as students did not always result in the most beneficial instructional changes being made for students. When the setting of goals was left to individual teachers, some chose goals that were easy to implement, but resulted in small changes to classroom environments, having little or no real impact on instructional techniques. The educations of gifted students in these classrooms were not individualized, and only one aspect of the classroom was improved. Other teachers understood the need for individualized educations, and set more substantive goals. Future training must emphasize that in order to feel challenged, interested, and satisfied, gifted learners in heterogeneous classrooms need to feel that instruction is matched to their current knowledge, interests, abilities, and strategies, so that these serve as a base from which they become motivated toward new learning. In order to meet their needs, teachers and school systems must provide an adjustment in rate of learning, level and topic of content, style preference, and environment for gifted learners.

REFERENCES

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Cross, T., & Stewart, R. (1995). A phenomenological investigation of the lebenswelt of gifted students in rural high schools. The Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, (Summer), 273-280.

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Manuscript submitted July, 1997.

Revision accepted January, 1998.

Ruth Davalos is an Assistant Professor at the University of Texas at Tyler where she teaches Adolescent Development. Other research interests include teacher education and gender issues. Glenda Griffin is an Assistant Professor in Educational Psychology at Texas A&M University, teaching Child Development for Educators and Educational Planning for the Gifted and Talented. She is Director of the Youth Adventure Program, a summer career exploration program for gifted students.