The Boys of the Archangel Raphael: A Youth Confraternity in Florence, 1411-1785.

Konrad Eisenbichler. Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1998. xi + 8pls. + 474 pp. $55. ISBN: 0-8020-4329-1.

The long anticipated appearance of this work is greatly welcomed by those of us who have known Konrad Eisenbichler's work and earlier publications, especially on the contribution of the Archangel Raphael fraternity (and other youth confraternities) to Florentine theater. Others have highlighted the confraternity's involvement with adventurous music and musicians from the later sixteenth century to the eighteenth, but Eisenbichler joyfully stresses (310) he is the first person to study the full picture throughout the period. Despite lacunae in the documentation (notably for the years 1494-1530, and 1658-86), we can follow the evolution of this confraternity from its foundation until its suppression; from its fairly obscure origins as a laudese fraternity primarily concerned with educating and protecting young "boys" (aged twelve to twenty), its growth into an important provider of religious theater and music (involving "youths" up to 30, and full adults), its later seventeenth- and eighteenth-century form as a sort of academy for an adult elite, sponsored by the Medici grand ducal family, and then its final demise under enlightenment attacks. Having "Boys" and "Youth" in the full title points to problems, ambiguities, and changes. The terminology of age, as the author stresses, was and is confused, in Italian, Latin and English; he settles largely for "youth."

For the first stage there are many insights into Florentine youth culture; into devotions, education, recreational games (in their own ball-courts), musical and theatrical performances, sermonising - whether the youth members are the creators or the performers of others' compositions. But Eisenbichler's near total history of the particular fraternity can readily be treated as a excellent guide to the religious life, liturgies, and culture experienced by the much wider range of adult, male, confraternities. The eminently readable text is full of translated quotations that can give a student an idea of fraternity social and liturgical ceremonies, processions, Forty-Hour devotions, and performances. Where there are gaps in evidence or too cryptic indicators of what might have gone on, we are helped with records from similar youth fraternities or of adult ones to illuminate practices.

Highlights include Eisenbichler's account of the expansion of the building complex from its new location at Santa Maria Novella, when reborn in the mid-sixteenth century; a splendid "walk through the confraternity's rooms" (64-70), based on the 1690 inventory, explains functions, procedures, and possessions, indicates both the locations for theatrical and musical performances, and an artistic collection which is well analysed later in chapter 19. Another highlight is the account of the obsequies staged on the death of Cosimo II in 1621, the most illustrious brother (chap. 20). There are interesting sidelights into the impact of Catholic Reform, vitalising theatrical and musical activities and the teaching of Christian Doctrine, but imposing more adult clerical control, and curbing lay sermons. There are important points about feasts and food (and the fun of eating watermelons; 158), about the limited use of flagellation (not necessarily the same as disciplina), about nobody being expelled for sodomy. Eisenbichler's study of the finale, an often neglected period in confraternity history, is much to be welcomed. Useful Appendices document the Guardian Fathers (lay leaders), Father Correctors (from different Orders), Chapel Masters, Musical and Theatrical Performances, and Works of Art.

Maybe the reviewer should declare his "interests"! He, like many involved in confraternity studies, has received much help, hospitality, and friendly encouragement from the author, and the Centre he directs at the University of Toronto; and commented enthusiastically on an earlier version of this text. Some questions and suggestions have been incorporated, others not (such as issues about active and passive members, and who were the ordinary musical performers, or the later provision of dowries as a new interest) - probably because the surviving documentation is not that helpful, and the text was already lengthy. Eisenbichler still slightly misunderstands what I wrote about motivation, but he uses the latter importantly to highlight the problem that we have little real knowledge of what prompted individuals to join fraternities and be active (120). With a clear conscience I fully recommend this study, both for those being introduced to confraternities generally, and specialists in many aspects of Florence's lay religious culture.

University of Glasgow.