The American miracle. (History-Struggle for freedom).

Our War for Independence seemed destined for failure. But with the intercession of providence at key points, the American cause succeeded in spectacular fashion.

The creation of a new government hung in the balance. After almost five weeks of intense study and debate, of yeas and nays, of discord and acrimony, the convention was at a stand-still. Except for Rhode Island's, all the states' delegates, composed of the leading professionals and intellectuals of the day, had met at the Philadelphia State House in May of 1787 in hopes of addressing the shortcomings of the Articles of Confederation, under which the young union of 13 former colonies operated. Despite these delegates' intellectual brilliance, despite their patriotic diligence and goodwill, the convention had produced nothing but discord.

At issue were two governmental concepts. The first, the Virginia Plan, favored a strong federal government with three branches, the national executive, the national judiciary, and the national legislature. Its supporters, including such men as James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, believed that such an arrangement would correct the deficiencies inherent in the very decentralized Articles of Confederation. The second plan, introduced in opposition to the Virginia Plan, was the New Jersey Plan. Supported by the delegates from the smaller states, this plan contained "almost every feature of the Articles of Confederation that made for weakness and uncertainty," wrote Samuel Eliot Morison and Henry Steele Commager in their two-volume history of the U.S., The Growth of the American Republic.

By the end of June, the stalemate had solidified. On the 28th of that month, Benjamin Franklin, concerned that the convention would end in failure, prepared to address the delegates. Franklin was America's elder statesman. At 81, he was the oldest delegate at the convention and, during his long life, had achieved a degree of fame and acclaim greater than any other American save Washington. His genius was wide ranging. A noted inventor, he famously studied electricity along with geology, agriculture, astronomy, and meteorology, among other subjects. He had distinguished himself as a printer and journalist and as a diplomat. Now, he addressed the assembled delegates.

Franklin's words, like those of the other delegates, were carefully recorded by James Madison in his famous notes on the convention. "The small progress we have made after 4 or five weeks close attendance & continual reasonings with each other--our different sentiments on almost every question ... is methinks a melancholy proof of the imperfection of the Human Understanding," Franklin sadly observed. "We indeed seem to feel our own want of political wisdom, since we have been running about in search of it. We have gone back to ancient history for models of Government, and examined the different forms of those Republics which having been formed with the seeds of their own dissolution now no longer exist. And we have viewed Modern States all around Europe, but find none of their Constitutions suitable to our circumstances."

Franklin continued:

In this situation of this Assembly, groping as it were in the dark to find political truth, and scarce able to distinguish it when presented to us, how has it happened, Sir, that we have not hitherto once thought of humbly applying to the Father of lights to illuminate our understandings? In the beginning of the Contest with G. Britain, when we were sensible of danger we had daily prayer in this room for the divine protection.--Our prayers, Sir, were heard, & they were graciously answered. All of us who were engaged in the struggle must have observed frequent instances of a superintending providence in our favor. To that kind providence we owe this happy opportunity of consulting in peace on the means of establishing our future national felicity. And have we now forgotten that powerful friend? or do we imagine that we no longer need his assistance? I have lived, Sir, a long time, and the longer I live, the more convincing proofs I see of this truth--that God Governs in the affairs of men. And if a sparrow can not fall to the ground without his notice, is it probable that an empire can rise without his aid? We have been assured, Sir, in the sacred writings, that "except the Lord build the House they labour in vain that build it." I firmly believe this; and I also believe that without his concurring aid we shall succeed in this political building no better, than the Builders of Babel....

I therefore beg leave to move--that henceforth prayers imploring the assistance of Heaven, and its blessings on our deliberations, be held in this Assembly every morning before we proceed to business, and that one or more of the Clergy of this City be requested to officiate in that Service.

Franklin's motion was adopted that day, but the effect was gradual. A few days later, on July 10th, George Washington, who presided over the convention, still fretted over the outcome. In a letter to Alexander Hamilton he wrote, "I almost despair of seeing a favourable issue to the proceedings of our Convention, and do therefore repent having had any agency in the business." But the convention continued and compromise began to follow compromise and at the close of four months the delegates closed the convention in triumph. Madison records that upon concluding the proceedings Franklin turned "towards the President's Chair, at the back of which a rising sun happened to be painted, [and] observed to a few members near him, that Painters had found it difficult to distinguish in their art a rising from a setting sun." Now, Franklin said, "I have the happiness to know that it is a rising and not a setting Sun." To Washington it seemed that God had positively influenced the proceedings. A few months after the conven tion's close, he wrote to Marquis de Lafayette, "It appears to me ... little short of a miracle, that the Delegates from so many different States should unite in forming a system of national government...."

Guided by Providence

If successfully concluding the Constitutional Convention seemed miraculous to the participants, how much more so the entire drama that led to that closing scene? The whole American Revolution, from its causes and participants to its actual events and eventual success, upon reflection, appears to have resulted from a unique and unlikely confluence of events and personalities. The skeptic may attribute this to dumb luck, but to those who participated in the momentous affairs of the late 18th century, America seemed to be divinely appointed to stand as an example for the world, to be, as 17th century colonist John Winthrop said, "a City upon a Hill, the eyes of all people ... upon us."

The influence of Providence on America's early history can be found not only in the struggle for independence itself, but in the causes of that conflict. England, mired in debt because of the costly Seven Years War, started sowing the seeds of discontent in America when it began taxing the American colonies to generate desperately needed revenue. The situation gradually became intolerable to the American colonists and, in the words of Revolutionary-era historian David Ramsay, "The fire of liberty blazed forth from the press; some well-judged publications set the rights of the colonies, in a plain, but strong point of view. The tongues and pens of the well informed citizens laboured in kindling the latent sparks of patriotism. The flame spread from breast to breast, till the conflagration, became general."

Seen in its proper context, the American Revolution appears as the final act in the drama begun by the Seven Years War. Ironically, George Washington was the commander on the British side in a 1754 encounter with French soldiers that sparked the Seven Years War. In that year Washington was a young man of 22, and a recently minted lieutenant colonel in the Virginia militia. The year before, in 1753, he had been sent on a mission to the Ohio River Valley where the French were building fortifications. On this first expedition he "was simply ordered to hand to the commander of a French fort a letter from the governor of Virginia, and to ask him to withdraw as having 'invaded the King of Great Britain's territory,'" wrote French diplomat Jean Julles Jusserand in 1916 in his book, With Americans of Past and Present Days. The French, of course, politely declined.

The next year, though, Washington was ordered to take a small force back to the area to build fortifications. The French already had their own fort in the region, Fort Duquesne, but Washington built his own anyway, which, because of his lack of supplies, he christened "Fort Necessity." Coming across a French force under Lieutenant de Jumonville, Washington and his troops were compelled to open fire when they saw the French running for their muskets. By the time Washington could stop the firing and accept the surrender of Jumonville's men, 10 French soldiers lay dead. More powerful French forces eventually forced Washington

to surrender and leave the area, but he had played his first major role in history. "This incident, I'affaire Jumonville," writes historian Paul Johnson, "led to massive French retaliation and the outbreak of what was soon a world war." Through the peculiar workings of Providence, George Washington set in motion events that led to the founding of a new nation.

Bulletproof 

While the Seven Years War raged, George Washington continued to participate on the British side in the American theater, or in what is known as the French and Indian War. But after Washington's surrender at Fort Necessity, the task of driving the French from the Ohio River Valley fell on Major General Edward Braddock.

General Braddock, with four decades' experience on European battlefields, set off for Fort Duquesne in June 1755. Twenty-two hundred troops accompanied Braddock, including colonial militiamen from Virginia and North Carolina. Colonel Washington, though he had no command responsibilities, also accompanied Braddock.

The column of troops proceeded in orderly, European fashion on the long journey to Fort Duquesne. In reaching the area and preparing to cross the Monongahela River, Braddock sent an advance force under Lt. Col. Thomas Gage to secure the crossing. While attempting to follow his orders, Gage came under fire from a mixed French and Indian force. Though initially standing his ground and fighting with personal bravery, he fell back into Braddock's main column, while the Indians and the French melted into the woods, firing upon the British. Braddock's column erupted in confusion, with men firing wildly into the trees, while taking heavy fire from the forest. One of the participants on the British side recorded that "scarce an officer or soldier can say they ever saw at one time six of the Enemy and the greatest part never saw a single man. ..." Braddock, mortally wounded, tried to organize an orderly retreat, but his men broke and ran, even over-running their baggage train miles in the rear.

Among those targeted by enemy fire was George Washington. Such was the confusion of battle and shock at Braddock's defeat that rumors spread of Washington's death. The rumor was only dispelled by a letter from Washington's own hand. But even Washington was surprised at his own survival. To his brother John he wrote:

... by the miraculous care of Providence, that protected me beyond all human expectation; I had four bullets through my coat, and two horses shot under and yet escaped unhurt.

We have been most scandalously beaten by a trifling body of men. ...

If Washington had died at the Monongahela, it likely would have doomed any future American Revolution. Arguably, no other general had the personality and skill to hold the tattered remains of the American army together and conduct the retreat across New Jersey in the fall of 1776. The subsequent conquest at Trenton the day after Christmas (see page 22) would have been inconceivable in his absence. Crossing the Delaware River, upon which that battle depended, was achieved solely through the force of his will.

Indeed, Washington's influence throughout the Revolution and, later, during the Constitutional Convention and his presidential terms, determined the course of freedom America would take. And while opportunities abounded for a bullet to find him during the War for Independence, Providence continued to spare his life.

The most dramatic example came in early January 1777. Through brisk maneuver, Washington was able to bring his tired army to bear on British forces at Princeton, New Jersey. But the momentum turned against the Americans. It was then, when the Americans seemed beaten, that Washington arrived in person. Sizing up the situation, Revolutionary War historian Christopher Ward writes, Washington "put spurs to his horse and ... galloped across ahead of his troops." Ward continues:

He came upon a scene of desperate confusion, Mercer's men and Cadwalader's in disorganized retreat. Waving his hat to the huddled groups as he passed, and calling on them to stand their ground, he dashed to the front, into the hottest fire and within thirty paces of Mawhood's [British] line, to encourage his troops by the force of his own example.

The British soldiers were amazed at the sight of this big man on a great white horse so recklessly exposing himself. One of his aides thought to see him fall and covered his eyes to shut out the sight. A volley rang out from the enemy's line. The smoke from it shrouded Washington from all eyes. But when it blew away there he was, unhurt and still calling his men to come on.

Under the smiles of Providence, Washington again survived, and his personal bravery inspired his troops to victory. The victory buoyed the American cause and stunned European observers. Consequently, British historian Sir George Trevelyan wrote that "Washington was recognized as a far sighted and able general all Europe over" and that he was now considered "a prodigy of leadership."

Overcoming the British

Throughout the hostilities, the Americans had persevered and withstood the best efforts of the British Army and Navy, the most powerful military force then on the globe. Occasionally, they seemed to have the favor of Providence. For instance, when the British appeared to have Washington and his army trapped with their backs to the East River at the conclusion of the Battle of Long Island in August, 1776, Providence appeared to intervene on the American side.

In desperation, Washington had formed a bold plan to evacuate his army, some 10,000 strong, across the river to Manhattan Island beginning the night of August 29th. The plan had to be carried out secretly under the cover of darkness. If the British, whose lines were only 600 yards distant, discovered the evacuation while in progress, they would attack and the American cause would be lost. That evening, though, neither tide nor wind favored the evacuation, and by daylight the next morning there remained troops to be evacuated. Just then, as David Ramsay noted, "Providence, in a remarkable manner favoured the retreating army. ... Towards morning an extreme thick fog came up, which hovered over Long-Island, and by concealing the Americans, enabled them to complete their retreat without interruption." Had the fog not covered the evacuation, something approaching half of the American army would have been trapped and at the mercy of the British.

With the timely help of such favorable fortune, the Americans were able to carry on the struggle for independence. Through defeat and treachery, through the legendarily terrible conditions of winter quarters at Valley Forge and Morristown, the Americans persevered.

Finally, General Nathanael Greene had taken command of a pitifully small force in the Southern states, with which he undertook to oppose Lord Cornwallis' superior army. With much innovation and daring, to such an extent that some historians have ranked him as "little if at all lower than Washington as a general in the field," Greene conducted a campaign ending British activity in Georgia and the Carolinas.

The center of operations thereafter fell on Virginia, where, under orders from General Clinton in New York, Cornwallis fortified Yorktown as a port through which British forces could land. It appeared that Washington could concentrate his forces there and with French help perhaps trap Cornwallis. When a letter arrived indicating that a French fleet under de Grasse would be in Chesapeake Bay until mid-October and would also embark 3,000 additional troops, the course of action was clear. Under Washington and the French General Rochambeau, American and French forces wheeled toward Yorktown.

At Yorktown, Cornwallis was now pinned in a precarious position. De Grasse's naval force, including his powerful 110-gun flagship, the Ville de Paris, controlled the bay, preventing sea-based resupply and rescue. On land, the combined American and French armies outnumbered Cornwallis' command by more than two to one.

Still, Cornwallis had an avenue of escape. If he could get his army across the York River, he could easily defeat the small force blocking him there and proceed north to link with Clinton in New York. It was a bold plan, but well within Cornwallis' capabilities.

The escape attempt began on the evening of October 16, 1781. "Before midnight," says historian Christopher Ward, "Cornwallis embarked the greater part of the Guards, the light infantry, and part of the 23rd Regiment in small boats and landed them" on the other side. But, as Ward records, before the boats could return to load the remaining British forces, "a violent storm arose [and] drove them a long way down the river. That ended all chance of escape."

Once again, Providence had favored the American cause. The morning after the escape attempt, under a heavy barrage from American and French artillery, a lone British drummer "mounted the parapet and began to beat a parley." The next day came the famous surrender, the British soldiers stacking their arms to the tune of "The World Turned Upside Down."

Luck or Providence?

The American Revolution and founding was a most unlikely affair, from its curious origins at Washington's Fort Necessity, through the twists and turns of its campaigns, to its military conclusion at Yorktown and civil conclusion at the Constitutional Convention. Not only did the American cause benefit from heavenly help at various moments, but the entire time and place of this epic struggle seemed blessed with just the right mixture of genius and personality to ensure success. Numerous historians have noted this, Paul Johnson the most recent. In 1997, in his History of the American People, the British historian observed:

[T]he generation that emerged to lead the colonies into independence was one of the most remarkable groups of men in history--sensible, broad-minded, courageous, usually well educated, gifted in a variety of ways, mature, long-sighted, sometimes lit by flashes of genius. It is rare indeed for a nation to have at its summit a group so variously gifted as Washington and Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Adams. And what was particularly providential was the way in which their strengths and weaknesses compensated each other, so that the group as a whole was infinitely more formidable than the sum of its parts.

It is a wonder what this talented group of patriots achieved. They themselves were astounded at their accomplishment. Future historians, Washington wrote in a letter to Nathanael Greene, will bestow on the labors of the Americans "the epithet and marks of fiction: for it will not be believed that such a force as Great Britain has employed for eight years in this country could be baffled in their plan of subjugating it by numbers infinitely less, composed of men sometimes half-starved; always in rags, without pay, and experiencing, at times, every species of distress which human nature is capable of undergoing." Though some ascribe the American achievement to luck, people of faith tend to believe that a Divine hand was present in the undertaking and that the American cause sallied forth under the guidance of heavenly Providence.