Teachers of Gifted Students: Suggested Multicultural Characteristics and Competencies.

In most books that provide an overview of or introduction to gifted education, attention is devoted to characteristics of gifted education teachers. The authors of these various works contend that such teachers require specific skills and knowledge in order to facilitate the academic, cognitive, and affective development of gifted students. Because many of these characteristics and competencies are described in this special issue of Roeper Review, they are not repeated in this article. Instead, descriptions of these characteristics and competencies are complemented by addressing additional, often overlooked, characteristics and competencies needed by teachers to work effectively with gifted students, particularly those who are linguistically, culturally and ethnically diverse(1). These characteristics and competencies focus specifically on multicultural knowledge, philosophies, and skills. Unfortunately, we have found that the lists presented in gifted education books seldom address the need for teachers to have multicultural skills and competencies. A few exceptions appear in Seeley (1979), Hultgren and Seeley (1982), and Bishop (1968). They recommend that teachers have "cultural and intellectual interests" and "skills in working with culturally different talented youth." While this is a beginning, more attention must be devoted to preparing teachers to work with gifted students in general, but particularly those who are culturally, ethnically and linguistically diverse.

Background and Rationale 

To date, few culturally diverse individuals are choosing to enter the teaching profession. Numerous reports have noted the under-representation of teachers of color. Just as troubling, few students of color are experiencing success in school settings. High dropout rates, poor test scores, and school apathy among minority students appear to be the norm in too many schools. Authors in the field of multicultural and urban education frequently attribute the poor educational outcomes of minority students to a cultural mismatch between these students and their teachers. In particular, few teachers have received formal preparation to work with culturally, ethnically, and linguistically diverse students (e.g., Banks, 1995). In two seminal books, Ladson-Billings (1994) and Foster (1998) describe the characteristics of exemplary teachers of African-American students. These characteristics are illustrated in Figure 1. Essentially, exemplary teachers strive to develop interpersonal relationships with their students; they feel responsible for the successes and failures of students, they seek opportunities to increase their cultural awareness and competence, and they endeavor to infuse multicultural education into the traditional curriculum.

Figure 1.

Exemplary Teachers of African-American Students

Characteristics                     Examples

1.  Develops interpersonal          Gets to know (personally and
    relationships with students.    socially) diverse students and
                                    their families; takes a personal
                                    interest in diverse students;
                                    seeks positive, respectful and
                                    trusting relationships with
                                    students.

2.  Feels partly responsible for    Celebrates with the student when
    students' successes and         he/she succeeds. Does not fault
    failures.                       student totally for not
                                    succeeding; instead takes
                                    responsibility for not doing
                                    something else or something more.

3.  Holds the belief that it is     Does not allow the student, the
    the teacher's responsibility    family or themselves to offer
    to make sure students learn     excuses.
    and want to learn.

4.  Is familiar with and uses       Incorporates multicultural
    multicultural theories,         concepts, issues and materials
    concepts, and materials.        into the curriculum to increase
                                    its relevance by using
                                    storytelling, discussions, etc.

5.  Serves as an advocate and       Listen and respond to the needs
    makes the necessary changes     of diverse students.
    to help diverse students to
    feel a sense of membership
    in the classroom/school.

6.  Holds beliefs that affirm       Understands the historical and
    the dignity and worth of        contemporary importance of Black
    culturally, ethnically, and     English vernacular (Ebonics or
    linguistically diverse          non-standard English), but also
    students.                       teaches students to speak
                                    standard English.

7.  Wants to see minority           Helps to prepare students for
    students succeed in school      life outside of school.
    and other social settings.

8.  Believes that the `whole'       Addresses academic, cognitive,
    child must be addressed in      moral and social-emotional
    the school setting.             development and skills.

9.  Believes that students from     Incorporates the verbal and vocal
    different cultures have         sills of minority students into
    strengths to be acknowledged    their curricula.
    and addressed in school.

10. Expresses high expectations,    Makes students responsible for
    regardless of their students'   what is assigned, expects them
    racial or cultural              to do well, and helps them reach
    background.                     higher levels.

11. Adopts a tough-love policy-     Has a no nonsense attitude. Does
    sets standards, expects         not allow the student to `slack
    students to meet them; helps    off'; does not accept excuses.
    students to meet standards.

Further, Sue, Arrendondo, and McDavis (1992), Irvine and Armento (2001), Cushner (2001), and Pang (2001) contend that culturally competent professionals have the following core characteristics: self-awareness and understanding; cultural awareness and understanding; social responsiveness and responsibility; and culturally sensitive techniques and strategies (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. Characteristics of Effective Teachers of Gifted Diverse
Students.

Characteristics of Effective Teachers of Gifted Diverse Students

Characteristics of
Gifted Education Teachers

Knowledge of the nature and needs of gifted
students.

Ability to develop methods and materials for
use with gifted students.

Skills in individualized teaching.

Skills in teaching higher level thinking skills
and questioning techniques.

Ability to identify gifted students.

Seeks to develop students' self-concept.

Skills in counseling gifted students.

Skills in creating an environment in which
gifted students feel challenged and safe to
explore and express their uniqueness.

Characteristics of
Multicultural Education Teachers

Knowledge of the nature and needs of
diverse students.

Ability to develop methods and materials for
use with diverse students.

Skills in addressing cultural differences in
students' learning styles, cognitive styles,
and behavioral styles.

Skills in teaching higher level thinking skills
and questioning techniques using multicultural
resources and materials.

Ability to recognize the strengths of diverse
students.

Seeks to develop students' concept as a
person of color (i.e., racial identity).

Skills in counseling diverse students (multicultural
counseling skills).

Skills in creating an environment in which
diverse students feel challenged and safe to
explore and express their uniqueness.

Characteristics of
Gifted Multicultural Education Teachers

Knowledge of the nature and needs of students
who are gifted and diverse.

Ability to develop methods and materials for
use with students who are gifted and
diverse.

Skills in address individual and cultural differences.

Skills in teaching higher level thinking skills
and questioning techniques using multicultural
resources and materials.

Ability to recognize the strengths of students
who are gifted and diverse.

Seeks to develop students' sense of self as
a gifted individual and diverse individual.

Skills in counseling students who are gifted
and diverse.

Skills in creating an environment in which
diverse gifted students feel challenged and
safe to explore and express their uniqueness.

Self-Awareness and Self-Understanding. The first step to enhancing cultural responsiveness is to be a self-reflective professional which requires educators to think seriously, critically, and honestly about their own views of cultural diversity and culturally diverse students (Pang, 2001). Culturally competent educators seek greater self-awareness and understanding regarding their biases, assumptions, and stereotypes. Self-awareness comes from understanding one's own cultural values and norms, and recognizing that everyone is a product of their culture. Self-awareness helps educators to recognize how their assumptions and biases influence their teaching and relationships with minority groups. Educators must ask themselves the following questions:

* How do I feel about working with students who are different from me? What stereotypes, biases and fears do I hold about minority students? How do they hinder teaching and learning?

* What aspects of my teaching and classroom practices (for example, my instructional style or reward system) hinder minority student achievement and identity?

* How are the expectations that I hold of minority children different from those of White children?

* How much time and effort (in my curriculum, instructional and assessments) am I willing to devote to teaching about diverse groups and multicultural education?

* How much time and effort am I willing to commit to learning about my diverse students?

Cultural Awareness and Understanding. After examining the previous questions and confronting their beliefs, attitudes, and values, educators must get in touch with their diverse students. This means reaching out to diverse students and their families. In doing so, the following questions might be useful:

* What is "culture" and how does it affect teaching and learning?

* Where and whom can I turn to for more information and resources on diverse cultures?

* What are the cultural beliefs, values, norms and traditions of the diverse students represented in my class and my school district?

* How can I use my students' cultural backgrounds as scaffolding for teaching and learning?

* How can I make learning culturally meaningful and relevant for all my students?

* What are my minority students interested in learning?

* What teaching strategies are culturally congruent and responsive?

Culturally competent educators attempt to understand the worldviews (i.e., values and norms) of diverse students. Educators do not have to adopt these views, but they must respect them as different and legitimate. Thus, a philosophy of pluralism prevails among culturally aware educators.

Socially Responsive and Responsible. Culturally competent educators attempt to increase multicultural awareness and understanding among all students. These educators practice multicultural education, even in racially homogenous settings (e.g., predominantly or all White classrooms, schools, and communities). The shortage or absence of minority students in a gifted program, school, community, or state is not used as an excuse for inattention to multicultural education. Socially responsive educators are also activists who seek positive changes on behalf of minority students. As advocates, such teachers seek equity in all areas of the educational process; they address inequities in materials, instruments, policies, and so forth.

Culturally Sensitive Techniques and Strategies. In their efforts to deliver a more effective education to diverse students, culturally competent educators adopt principles of learning that meet the academic, social-emotional, and psychological needs of minority students (Pang, 2001). Much of their effort is directed at achieving the highest levels of multicultural education--transformation and social action (see Banks, 1996). That is, students have an increased sensitivity to diversity and feel compelled to avoid promoting social injustices.

Characteristics of Culturally Responsive Classrooms(2)

Being a culturally responsive educator is not necessarily synonymous with having a culturally responsive classroom. In culturally responsive classrooms: students are placed at the center of teaching and learning, and minority students experience a sense of membership, belonging and ownership; multicultural education is a central component of the curriculum; teachers strive to promote multicultural education at the highest levels; teachers feel an obligation to address real-world issues; and teachers feel responsible for their students' cognitive, academic and affective well-being and respond accordingly. More specifically, the following characteristics are associated with culturally responsive classrooms:

Culturally relevant pedagogy. A central feature of culturally responsive classrooms is a culturally relevant pedagogy, which Ladson-Billings (1995) characterized as teaching that empowers students intellectually, socially, emotionally, and politically by using cultural referents to impart knowledge, skills and attitudes (p. 18). This pedagogy helps minority students to develop a relevant cultural identity that encourages them to strive for academic excellence. All students, regardless of their racial and cultural backgrounds, learn from curriculum that is multicultural; teachers adopt instructional strategies that target students' strengths; and students have opportunities to view topics from the perspective of minority groups. Books and other materials evince cultural sensitivity, varying perspectives, and authenticity; controversial topics are addressed in proactive ways; and teachers point out any biases in curricular materials (Cushner, 2001; Irvine & Armento, 2001). With a culturally responsive pedagogy in place, students become critical thinkers and problem solvers; they make judgments, evaluations, and then develop solutions to real social and cultural problems.

Equity pedagogy. Banks and Banks (1995) defined equity pedagogy as an essential component of a culturally responsive classroom. Culturally responsive teachers recognize quality education as a student's basic civil right; they seek equity and excellence for all students. They proactively and aggressively try to secure the resources and funding to improve their minority students' educational experiences -- their primary goal being to close the gap between their students' potential and performance.

One aspect of promoting equity is an emphasis on empowering minority students to be self-sufficient learners. As a Black teacher in Howard's (1999) study stated, "I tell students that they have to take responsibility for their own learning. There are a lot of times when they sit back and expect the teacher to give them something. I tell them "You've got to keep bugging that teacher until you find out, until you get what you need" (p. 122). This statement suggests that students embrace the value of a strong sense of educational self-determination; they have a sense of empowerment that is frequently missing among students who habitually face social injustices.

Perceptions of knowledge. In a culturally responsive classroom, knowledge is far from a scarce resource; knowledge is power. But culturally responsive teachers recognize that knowledge is subjective, value-laden, and reciprocal (i.e., students and teachers learn from each other). A student is not a blank slate, a tabula rasa, but is, or can be, an active constructor of his or her learning.

Holistic teaching philosophy. Culturally responsive classrooms are characterized by the teacher's desire to teach the whole child. That is, teachers attend to students' academic and cognitive development, and to their social-emotional and moral growth. Teaching minority students, about half of who live in poverty, requires educators to address a range of academic and non-academic issues. However, teachers must recognize that poverty is only one explanation for minority student underachievement; school itself (for example, the attitudes and expectations of school personnel) is an equally important factor in student underachievement. Students confront complex issues that cannot be separated from teaching and learning. Thus, culturally responsive teachers extend themselves beyond their typical, traditional role. Many try to teach book sense and common sense, stressing character building and helping to produce students who are honest, respectful, responsible, cooperative, and sensitive to others. Howard (1999) cited one Black teacher on this very point:

   You see, education isn't just about what goes on in the class. Education
   also takes place outside of the class. These kids need to realize that
   there is a way to behave outside of the home, and that's what I want them
   to learn. So I tell them, when you go to school or when you go to church,
   or when you go downtown on the bus, or when you go anywhere, there are
   rules of behavior in society that don't always jive with rules of behavior
   at home. Your parents will accept many things from you that other people
   will not. I tell them that they need to know how to listen and follow
   directions. I tell them to speak clearly, stand straight, don't act silly,
   and have some pride about themselves (p. 68).

This particular teacher demands excellence at every task, inside and outside of school, and in demanding it, she often succeeds.

A "We-Us-Our" or Communal Philosophy. Those who teach from a holistic philosophy can also adopt a we and our philosophy. Evincing an ethic of caring, culturally responsive teachers believe minority students' outcomes--positive or negative--to be a shared responsibility (Pang, 2001). If the student fails, the teacher fails (culturally responsive teachers refuse to let minority students choose failure). One person's failure is everybody's failure. Accordingly, teachers involve students in their own communities; they structure learning experiences in which their students have opportunities to improve the quality of life there.

Such teachers also seem to have an our philosophy; they view their work as a way to give back to the community, and see themselves as members of the community. Working with the community means, first and foremost, seeking partnerships with families and encouraging their involvement in the educational process. It is recognized that some families can give more time and resources than others; thus, teachers avoid penalizing children whose families fall short of expectations. Whether families become involved or not, all students should receive an equal opportunity to learn. Culturally responsive teachers work with and around family needs.

Having a belief in shared responsibility and co-ownership of students' successes and failures, teachers advocate strongly for their students, taking whatever measures they can to promote their students' achievement. They cajole, nag, pester, and bribe students to work at high levels. A teacher in Ladson-Billings' (1995) study put it this way: "We are a family. We have to care for one another as if our survival depended on it. Actually, it does" (p. 481).

Respect for students' primary language. Culturally responsive teachers also build upon the language of minority students and their families. They use culturally communicative strategies and philosophies that affirm their students' native languages or dialects. This need to accommodate language may be evident when students speak Spanish, Creole, Japanese or Chinese. It may be less obvious when students speak Ebonics or the Black English vernacular. No language gets negated, criticized or devalued; instead, educators teach students the important skill of code switching--that is, students learn when and where to use standard and non-Standard English. A teacher Howard (1999) interviewed phrased it this way:

   I don't have problems with Ebonics, but I also want students to know that
   Ebonics and Standard English are two different things. Both are just as
   valid, but Standard English is what's going to get you through this world
   ... and what you have to do is learn how to jump back and forth. I do it
   every day. I go home and speak Ebonics or sometimes when I get angry, I use
   it. When they see me move into that stuff, I tell them, "What you just saw
   me do was transition. Now, which one works more effectively here [in
   school] ?" (pp. 87-88)

   Culturally responsive teachers structure discourse patterns, phrases and
   interactions to be consistent with the modes of communication their
   students use at home. As a result, students are less likely to experience
   cultural mismatch or incongruence.

Culturally congruent instructional practices. In a culturally relevant classroom, the instruction undergoes modifications to make it more congruent or compatible with the cultural and learning styles of minority students. Au and Jordan (1981), for example, increased the reading achievement of native Hawaiian students by using story structures similar to those of the children and incorporating information about their culture into the curriculum.

Further, teachers capitalize on the learning style preferences of students when they adopt social or cooperative learning methods, use kinesthetic and tactile teaching strategies, incorporate visual aids into the curriculum, and attempt to make abstract concepts concrete (Ford & Harris, 1999; Shade, 1994; Shade, et al., 1997). Instruction -- the way we teach -- profoundly affects the way diverse students learn (i.e., perceive, receive, and retain the content of the curriculum).

Culturally sensitive assessment. Just as curriculum and instruction must become more culturally responsive, so too must assessment. Perhaps the biggest criticism of standardized tests is that they underestimate the abilities of diverse students, but many schools continue to use these tests as the primary or sole criterion for placement in gifted programs and services. Consequently, many minority students, already at risk for reluctant teacher referrals, go under-represented in gifted education programs that rely heavily on tests. Culturally responsive teachers recognize that diverse students have many strengths that ability tests cannot measure. As one teacher in Ladson-Billings' (1994) study remarked,

   You know ... they're all successful at something. The problem is that
   school often doesn't deal with the kinds of things they can and will be
   successful at. And those tests! They don't begin to test what the kids
   really know. That's why my class is a constant search for ways to be
   successful. The tests don't get at this big involved process of moving from
   a concrete experience to the level of abstraction that writing presents (p.
   46).

Culturally responsive teachers use a variety of measurements that give their students a chance to demonstrate their understanding and learning in different ways. They invite their students, for example, to create books, plays, poems, and songs that reflect their learning. Similarly, the students receive substantive testing information to learn from their successes and failures.

Student-family-teacher relationships. Most teachers recognize that positive student-family-teacher relationships are the foundation for students' school success. Culturally responsive teachers make a conscious effort to connect with students and their families on an interpersonal level. They attend community events, eat lunch with students, meet with students individually, and show support for their minority students both inside and outside of school.

Diverse teaching staff White Americans currently comprise at least 85 percent of the teaching profession (Ford, 1999). With so few minority teachers, minority students have fewer role models and cultural advocates than White students have. Furthermore, few teachers receive formal preparation to work with culturally diverse or gifted students; these factors place gifted minority students at a double disadvantage. In culturally responsive schools, educators understand the importance of providing White and minority students with a diverse teaching staff. Accordingly, administrators make proactive and aggressive efforts to increase teacher diversity.

The critical need to recruit and retain minority teachers in education was highlighted by Ford (1999) who surveyed minority teachers regarding their decisions to teach or not teach in gifted education. Many teachers reported that administrators or academic advisors never encouraged them to pursue careers in gifted education. Some minority teachers reported being discouraged from working with gifted students. As King (1994) and Ladson-Billings (1994) demonstrated, minority teachers can have a positive and powerful impact on minority students' achievement, self-esteem, and self-efficacy. Many minority students report being empowered by minority teachers who served as their advocates, mentors, and role models. Of course, as Paley (1979) has shown, White teachers can also serve similar roles for minority students.

While these characteristics address multicultural characteristics and competencies, they do not address characteristics and competencies of teachers of gifted diverse students. This oversight is discussed in the following section. In Figure 2, the central or core characteristics of teachers who work effectively with gifted diverse students are synthesized.

Summary and Conclusions

Describing those characteristics that make teachers effective with their students is a complex, time-consuming task. Davis and Rimm (1998) contend that teachers in gifted education should be gifted themselves (p. 40). Of all the characteristics attributed to teachers of gifted students, this is the most disagreeable. It is tantamount to arguing that teachers of culturally, ethnically and linguistically diverse students must also be culturally, ethnically and linguistically diverse. Certainly, it is possible for White teachers to work effectively with diverse students. The ability to be culturally competent is essential given the limited number of minority teachers (e.g., Ford, Grantham, & Harris, 1998) and the increasing changing demographics among students (Ford & Harris, 1999). Our world is, indeed, shrinking.

A culturally responsive educator hardly materializes overnight or without strong intentions. One must want to become a culturally responsive teacher, which means seeking educational and cultural opportunities that strengthen one's cultural sensitivity, knowledge and skills. Likewise, a culturally responsive teacher need not become an expert on every culture. Being culturally responsive does, however, require a basic understanding of some of the general beliefs, values, traditions, and norms diverse groups hold, such as those discussed earlier in the article. This general knowledge lays the foundation for a framework of informed educational decisions.

Several colleges and universities offer multicultural courses or programs. Similarly, several professional organizations devote themselves solely to such preparation (e.g., The National Association for Multicultural Education); and many professional organizations maintain divisions that offer multicultural training and information (e.g., The National Association for Gifted Children's Special Population Division, The Council for Exceptional Children's Diversity Division, and the American Educational Research Association's various Special Interest Groups). Finally, at least a dozen journals offer substantive discussions of multicultural topics (e.g., the Journal of Negro Education, Urban Education, the Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, Education and Urban Society, and the Journal of Black Psychology). Perhaps the best way to learn more about diverse cultures is through first-hand experiences -- visiting students' homes, attending cultural events, collaborating with diverse colleagues, and observing, talking with, and listening to diverse students themselves. Educators must be proactive and aggressive in seeking opportunities to become responsive to students. Thus, as the field of gifted education seeks to characterize those qualities that help teachers to be effective and competent with gifted students, let us be mindful of the need for teachers to also be culturally aware, sensitive, and competent.

(1) We use the terms linguistically, culturally, and ethnically diverse interchangeably with minority and students of color. Specifically, we are referring to Black, Hispanic/Latino, Native American, and Asian American students.

(2) This section relies heavily on the work of Ford, Howard, Harris and Tyson (in press).

REFERENCES

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Banks, J.A., & Banks, C.A.M. (1995). Handbook of research on multicultural education. New York: Macmillan.

Boykin, A.W. (1994). Afrocultural expression and its implications for schooling. In E.R. Hollins, J.E. King, & W.C. Hayman (Eds.), Teaching diverse populations: Formulating a knowledge base. (pp. 225-273). New York: State University of New York Press.

Cushner, K. (2001). Human diversity in action: Developing multicultural competencies for the classroom. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Davis, G.A. & Rimm, S.B. (1998). Education of the gifted and talented (4th ed.). New York: Allyn and Bacon.

Feldhusen, J.F. (1998). Educating teachers for work with talented youth. In N. Colangelo & G.A. Davis (Eds.), Handbook of gifted education (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Ford, D.Y., Grantham, T.G., & Harris III, J.J. (1996). Multicultural gifted education: A wakeup call to the profession. Roeper Review, 19(2), 72-78.

Ford, D.Y., Grantham, T.C., & Harris III, J.J. (1997). The recruitment and retention of minority teachers in gifted education. Roeper Review, 19(4), 213-220.

Ford, D.Y. & Harris III, J.J. (1999). Multicultural gifted education. New York: Teachers College Press.

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Howard, T. (1999, unpublished manuscript). Effective teachers of African American students: A case study of four teachers. Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University.

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Donna Y. Ford is a Professor of Education at the Ohio State University where she teaches courses in gifted education. Donna's research focuses on recruiting and retaining diverse students in gifted education, increasing the achievement of diverse students, and creating multicultural curriculum. Michelle Frazier Trotman is a Doctoral Student in Special Education at the Ohio State University. She is interested in promoting positive educational outcomes for urban students and those identified as at risk for school failure. She is a former special education teacher.

Manuscript submitted June, 2000.

Revision accepted January, 2001.