Teachers facing Information and Communication Technology (ICT): the case of Greece.

The introduction of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Greek primary education appears to be carried out in the midst of a general uncertainty, mainly on the part of the teachers, who will have to cope with a new teaching tool and a new teaching philosophy that very few of them have learned to apply. The aim of this study was to elucidate the perceptions and the attitudes of Greek teachers towards the use of ICT, and to explore the potential of the integration of the new technologies in public primary education. The sample consisted of 951 male and female primary school teachers from all over the country. The results reveal that although the majority of the respondents believes that ICT is a useful tool for teaching and learning, and generally agrees with its exploitation in schools, it appears that they are not yet fully convinced about the advisability of the immediate introduction of new technologies in primary education.

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Despite the fact that Information and Communications Technology (ICT) has become a common feature of schools worldwide, its influence on education and learning has been far less than what would be expected from such a versatile and forceful tool. The evidence for the learning benefits of the integration of ICT in the curriculum constantly increases (Mioduser, Tur-Kaspa, & Leitner, 2000; Ronen & Eliahu, 2000; Frear & Hirschbuhl, 1999; Chen & Looi, 1999; Kapa, 1999), while at the same time the failure of teachers to make significant use of new technologies in the classroom is also well documented (Dawes, 1999; Watson, 1997a; Underwood, 1997; Stevenson, 1997; McKinsey, 1997). This of course is not at all paradoxical, since the studies which present the evidence for learning gains of the utilisation of ICT in the learning process have largely been carried out in laboratory--style environments or with the participation of teachers who are considered to be either particularly effective or keen to take part in action research, technology innovation, or curriculum development projects (Kennewell, 1997). However, the vast majority of teachers fails to exploit the new powerful technologies in everyday teaching practice. Although ICT education has become a significant component of teacher education programmes, these courses appear unable to provide teachers with the skills and attitudes necessary for the meaningful application of ICT in the classroom (Williams, Coles, Wilson, Richardson, & Tuson, 2000; Watson, 1997b; Handler & Pigott, 1995).

ICT IN PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULA

In current classroom applications ICT serves two main objectives:

* to help pupils acquire confidence and pleasure in using new technologies, become familiar with some everyday ICT applications, and be able to evaluate the technology's potential and limitations; and

* to enrich and extend learning throughout the curriculum by supporting collaborative learning and independent study as well as by enabling pupils to work at a more demanding level by averting boring, time consuming, routine tasks (Drossos & Kiridis, 2000).

Whereas early ICT initiatives in schools were essentially technology driven, aiming at developing students' "computer literacy," ICT started to be regarded gradually not only as a skill worthy to acquire but also as a valuable tool for the development of other skills. As a result, nowadays ICT has become a significant component of school curricula, a supportive tool for providing teachers and students with enhanced teaching and learning opportunities in the whole range of school subjects. The content of the national curriculum statements of countries such as the UK, the USA and Australia provide clear evidence for this shift from the teaching of ICT alone to the infusion of ICT as a significant tool in the school curricula (Drossos, 1998; McDonald & Davis, 1995; Oliver, 1994).

ICT IN GREEK PRIMARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM

In Greece there is still no central initiative for the introduction of ICT in public primary education. The use of ICT in Greek primary schools is largely marginal and not well established. Only a few schools participate in small--scale research or pilot projects. Furthermore, a small number of primary schools have been supplied with machinery with help from parents, teachers, and the local authorities. Although there are indications that in many cases the exploitation of ICT in these schools is substantial, it soon became evident that teachers must be at least provided with theoretical assistance, in order to avoid any possible damages by the empirical use of new technologies in such a sensitive age group as primary school children. Thus, the Greek Pedagogical Institute published in 1997, a general framework for the introduction of ICT in primary education, which is consistent with these new trends. According to the Pedagogical Institute new technologies should be used in primary schools such as:

* learning tools;

* teaching tools across the curriculum;

* tools for communication and search of information; and

* tools for the development of ICT literary (IP.E.P.TH., 1997).

Of course, at this point one could ask the following question: Are teachers able to contribute to the smooth introduction of ICT in schools and to employ it effectively in the classroom?

TEACHER TRAINING INSTITUTIONS AND ICT

The exploitation of ICT as an important tool across the curriculum resulted in a dramatic rise in the pressure exerted on teacher education worldwide to offer more and more ICT training to teachers. Teacher training institutions were expected to play a significant role in the introduction of ICT into education, at the very least, by making their graduates more and more competent in the use of ICT in the classroom (Oliver, 1994). In their attempt to respond to this expectation, teacher training establishments adopted a number of strategies. The most usual ones were either creating new discrete courses dedicated to ICT or trying to permeate the use of ICT throughout the existing courses of study (Drossos & Kiridis, 2000; Pratt, 1993; Robertson, 1997). The literature favoured the permeation model. However, in practice, institutions began to have serious problems with their permeation approach. The main cause of these problems was the lack of expertise and confidence in the use of ICT that had been expressed by the majority of the training staff (Robertson). Thus, the majority of the teacher training institutions, recognising that they lacked the expertise to support the permeation model, began to develop discrete ICT courses (Drossos, 1998).

GREEK TEACHER TRAINING INSTITUTIONS AND ICT

Discrete ICT courses were also the most popular choice for the majority of the Greek teacher training institutions (Spanaka, 1999; Makrakis, 1997). Such courses basically aim at the development of teachers' familiarity with ICT by teaching them simple operational skills such as word processing, use of the Internet, and e-mail, the construction and the use of simple databases, an introduction to Logo or Basic, and by providing them with the opportunity to review a range of educational software (Kiridis, Golia & Fachandidis, 2003; Spanaka, 1999; Makrakis, 1997). These free-standing ICT components seem to be an obvious solution for the majority of the establishments. First, these courses are obviously taught by ICT experts, not requiring the rest of the staff to "struggle" with technology. Second, they are consistent with the widely accepted philosophy in Greece suggesting that "in order for teachers to use computers in their teaching, they should first become competent and confident users of ICT; once they are confident users of ICT, they will be inclined to use it in their teaching" (Drossos & Kiridis, 2000).

ICT AND TEACHERS, THE ROLE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

Logically, the direct teaching of ICT skills that was adopted both by Greek teacher training institutions and by the majority of teacher training establishments worldwide appears to assure ICT competency and confidence. Unfortunately, this is not the case. A number of studies concerning the amount of teachers' ICT use in teaching practice showed that personal expertise in the use of ICT does not increase the likelihood of ICT use in the classroom (Cuckle, Clarke, & Jenkins, 2000; Baron, Bruillard, & Chaptal, 1997; Wild, 1995; Dunn & Ridgway, 1994). Moreover, there are examples of teachers attempting to integrate ICT in their teaching practice, but their attempt was not at all satisfactory. To be more specific, it was observed that they did not make use of all the variety of the software that was included in their training and was required by the National Curriculum. Furthermore, even the limited range of software that they used was not employed properly (Williams et al., 2000; Robertson, 1997; Stevenson, 1997; McKinsey, 1997). Teachers appear to have little understanding of the range of the uses of ICT in school and it seems that teacher training institutions have limited success in providing them with this understanding and with the skills that would enable them to make effective use of ICT in the classroom (Williams et al.; Simpson, Payne, Munro, & Lynch, 1998; Becker, 1998).

This is also evident in the few studies carried out in Greece. Greek teachers consistently indicate that they need more and better training on the ways that ICT can be used in teaching as well as on the management of the use ICT in the classroom (Charalambous & Karagiorgi, 2002; Makrakis, 1997) and they repeatedly point out the necessity for teacher training establishments to equip their graduates not only with the necessary ICT skills, but also with knowledge concerning the planning and the management of the use of ICT in the classroom for teaching and learning (Kiridis, Drossos, & Tsakiridou, 2001; Spanaka, 1999). Thus, for teacher training to play a key role in the future introduction of ICT in the Greek primary schools, it must make teachers competent in using ICT as a:

* teaching tool;

* personal tool; and

* tool for the development of students' ICT literacy.

The objectives of the large-scale inservice ICT training initiative, which is organised currently by the Greek Ministry of Education and will be carried out for three years, are compatible with the remarks previously stated (IP.E.P.TH., 2000).

TEACHERS FACING THE INTRODUCTION OF ICT IN EDUCATION

Nevertheless, the provision of these skills and knowledge, though extremely valuable, is still not enough for the effective application of ICT in schools. New technologies pose an enormous challenge as tools to teachers, because they demand significant changes on all fronts. The fundamental shift required by the use of ICT for teaching is to teachers' existing conceptions of the teaching and learning process and to their perceptions of their own role within it. Some teachers may cope without particular problems with such a large scale change, while others are more conservative by nature and may tend to see this change as an undesirable threat (Robinson, 1997; Fullan, 1991). This fact combined with factors such as career stage, gender, lack of ICT expertise, past negative experiences of ICT use, time pressure as well as lack of suitable machinery, and software may provoke enormous teachers' reactions, which can result in the failure or even the cancellation of any initiative aiming at the exploitation of ICT in primary education (Kennewell, 1997; Underwood, 1997; Bikos, 1995).

Thus, for the introduction of ICT in primary schools to be successful, both initial and inservice teacher education in addition to providing the necessary ICT related skills and theoretical knowledge, must focus on teachers, adapt ICT courses to teachers' professional needs, provide them with suitable experiences and paradigms, make them understand the usefulness of the new technologies for teaching and learning, and take into account their existing attitudes and perceptions (Lawson & Comber 1999; Cox, Preston, & Cox, 1999a, 1999b). Adopting this point of view, in the following piece of research we are trying to elucidate the perceptions and the attitudes of Greek teachers concerning the oncoming introduction and employment of ICT in primary education, aiming to contribute to the better planning and implementation of the Ministry's ICT training initiative as well as to provide insights for any other further training attempt.

METHOD

The introduction of ICT in the Greek primary education appearss to be carried out in the midst of a general uncertainty, mainly on the part of the teachers who will have to cope with a new teaching tool, a new technical infrastructure, and in general a new teaching philosophy and learning techniques that very few of them have learned to apply. Is mere training sufficient? And what if teachers' personal perceptions and attitudes towards ICT are negative anyway? What does the Greek Ministry of Education know about their opinions about ICT? These are some of the issues and questions that should be dealt with before definite decisions are made. This is absolutely necessary, because teachers are the ones who will be called upon to integrate ICT in the learning process effectively, exploit its potential, and obviate its risks. Thus, for such a revolutionary initiative to be implemented successfully, one should be aware of the dominant ideological and perceptive versions along with the attitudes towards this particular issue of the people who will be obliged to contribute to the realization of the initiative. This is the aim of this piece of research: To elucidate the opinions, the perceptions, and the attitudes of Greek teachers towards the use of ICT, and to explore the potential of the introduction of the new technologies in public primary education.

Such an exploration should take into account a variety of parameters reported in relevant pieces of research (Fisher, 2000; Mumtaz, 2000; Lawson & Comber, 1999; Simpson et al., 1998; Kennewell, 1997; Underwood, 1997), which compose the general context of teachers' perceptions and opinions about the employment of ICT in primary schools. These parameters constitute the objectives of our research and they are:

1. the level of teachers' ICT literacy;

2. teachers' possession of a personal computer;

3. teachers' ICT training;

4. teachers' opinions about the usefulness of technology in general;

5. teachers' perceptions about the usefulness of ICT for teaching and learning;

6. teachers' attitudes towards ICT;

7. teachers' perceptions about the oncoming change of teacher's role; and

8. teachers' teaching flexibility.

The Research Tool

In this piece of research we have selected the questionnaire as a tool of research for the following reasons:

* The questionnaire attracts the interest of the people questioned more easily and increases their participation in the research procedure (Javeau, 1996)

* The necessity of using a large sample of subjects and the technical skills of the research team favour the use of the questionnaire (Davidson, 1970)

* The questionnaire is suitable for the collection of information, such as perceptions and opinions, which cannot be easily observed (Fraise & Piaget, 1970)

* The questionnaire is a research tool that provides the opportunity for continuous trials and interventions, in order to be constructed in the best possible way (Javeau)

The research tool was the result of the synthesis of preceding relevant pieces of research, that at a certain extent acted as preresearch (Kiridis, Golia, Tsakiridou, & Kaskalis, 2004; Kiridis, Drossos, & Tsakiridou, 2001). The first draft of the questionnaire was piloted in a small sample of 36 teachers. After the clarification of the ambiguities noted, the questionnaire was piloted again in another sample of 52 teachers.

The Sample

The sample consisted of 951 male and female primary school teachers from all over the country. All the questionnaires were either handed in personally or sent by mail. The following tables (Table 1-Table 7) present the percentile rank of the sample in relation to gender, level of urbanisation, years of age, marital status, type of primary school, level of training, and working experience respectively.

RESULTS

Data obtained from the teachers' survey, regarding their perceptions and attitudes towards ICT use at schools, was analysed implementing factor analysis. Factor analysis was applied to identify underlying dimensions or factors that explain the correlations among teachers' attitudes and perceptions regarding ICT use at schools.

Thus, the techniques of t-test and one-way Anova were applied in the standardised factor scores, to examine the differences in the mean values of the discrete groups of teachers, taking into account the influence of their gender, age, area where their school is situated, as well as ICT familiarity.

Results derived from factor analysis (Table 8) produced five noncorrelated factor groups. The first factor concerns teachers' opinions regarding students' equal opportunities in ICT access. The second factor involves potential social effects of the use of ICT at schools. Considering the third factor, teachers' perceptions about the changes in their role, which may be caused by the introduction of ICT in primary education, are measured. Teachers' perceived needs for ICT training constitute the fourth factor, whereas the influence of ICT on teaching and learning concerns the fifth factor. Cronbach's coefficients reached acceptable levels for all five scales (86.6%, 67.5%, 70.5%, 78.5% and 70.3%).

Factor 1: Students' Equal Opportunities in ICT Access

The first factor derives from three discrete variables with loadings between 0.780 and 0.915 and with 14.1% explanation of the total variance in the sample: variable 18 (the absence of ICT in many schools throughout the country creates inequality problems among students), variable 16 (students who do not own a PC are in a more disadvantageous position compared to those who do), and variable 17 (students who own a PC have an extra advantage compared to those who do not).

Table 9 depicts teachers' level of agreement with the statements of each factor. As it can be shown, the majority of the teachers agree that the absence of ICT in many schools throughout the country creates inequality problems among students (Q18, 64%). The 49.1% of the teachers believe that students who own PCs have an extra advantage compared to those who do not (Q17) and 48.8% consider that students who do not own PCs are in a more disadvantaged position (Q16).

Analysis indicated that teachers' answers regarding equal opportunities (factor 1) are not differentiated according to gender and age. However, school area ([F.sub.3,790] = 2.69, p<0.05) and ICT familiarity (t = 2.492, df = 793, p<0.05) appear to have a significant effect on the first factor. More precisely, respondents teaching in Thessaloniki, urban and rural areas, appear to agree more with the statements of equal opportunities than those from Athens and semi-urban areas. On the other hand, teachers who are familiar with ICT appear to agree less than those who are not familiar with the use of ICT regarding the first factor (Table 10).

Factor 2: Social Effects of the Use of ICT at Schools

The second factor includes six statements regarding social effects of the ICT introduction at schools, with loadings between 0.478 and 0.696 and with 12.5% explanation of the total variance in the sample. These statements are Q32 (It is not certain that new technologies will benefit the society), Q34 (The employment of ICT in schools creates technical problems which are difficult for teachers to cope with), Q29 (More articulate reasons are necessary for the introduction of ICT in schools), Q20 (The use of the Internet for teaching and learning encompasses risks for students), Q35 (The employment of ICT in schools will reduce students' spontaneity and creativity), and Q30 (The integration of ICT in school is a necessary evil).

As can be seen in Table 9, an important percent of teachers agree that the employment of ICT in school creates technical problems, which are difficult for teachers to cope with (Q34, 48%), that more articulate reasons are necessary for the introduction of ICT in schools (Q29, 47.5%), and that it is not certain that new technologies will benefit the society (Q32, 46.2%). Teachers' answers are diverged concerning their perceptions about the risks of the Internet use for teaching and learning (Q20) and about whether the integration of ICT in school is a necessary evil or not (Q30). Finally, the majority of teachers (59.9%) do not agree that the employment of ICT in schools will reduce students' spontaneity and creativity (Q35).

Regarding the second factor, there is a significant difference in the grade of agreement between men and women (t = 2.502, df = 794, p<0.05). Therefore, men agree more with the statements of the second factor than women do (Table 10). Moreover, school area and ICT familiarity seem to have a significant influence on teachers' answers regarding the second factor ([F.sub.3.790] = 3.169, p<0.05). Teachers working in rural areas show stronger disagreement about the social effects of ICT introduction in schools than teachers from all the other regions (Table 10). In addition, teachers who are familiar with the use of ICT seem to agree more than those who are not familiar with ICT regarding the second factor (t = 4.476, df = 793, p<0.001 [Table 10]).

Factor 3: The Introduction of ICT in Primary Education and the Subsequent Changes in Teachers' Role

The third factor consistED of four statements with loadings between 0.530 and 0.751, explaining the 12.2% of the total variance in the sample. These statements are Q21 (The introduction of ICT in schools converts teachers into students), Q22 (The integration of ICT in schools downgrades teachers' role within the learning process), Q25 (The employment of ICT in primary education restrains teachers' role within schools) and Q33 (ICT will replace textbooks).

As can be seen from Table 9, the majority of the respondents do not agree with the items of the third factor. More precisely, 83.9% do not believe that the integration of ICT in schools will downgrade teachers' role within the learning process, 77.3% do not agree that the employment of ICT in primary education restrains teachers' role within schools, 71.9% do not believe that that ICT will replace textbooks, and 68% disagre with the statement that ICT will covert teachers into students.

Regarding the results obtained from ANOVA, the only variable that had significant effect on the third factor is age ([F.sub.3,790] = 6.143, p<0.001). In other words, teachers over 55 years old seem to have more negative attitudes compared to younger teachers (Table 10).

Factor 4: Teachers' Perceived Needs for ICT Training

The fourth factor is related to teachers' perceived needs for ICT training. It consists of two variables, Q23 (Taking into account the ongoing introduction of the new technologies in primary education, every teacher must be trained in the use of ICT) and Q24 (Even teachers who are regular ICT users must be trained in the utilisation of ICT for teaching and learning), explaining the 10.9% of the total variance, with loadings 0.863 and 0.866 respectively.

Table 9 points out teachers' level of agreement with the elements of the fourth factor. As it can easily be understood, the great majority of the respondents (91.1%) agrees that every teacher should be trained in the use of ICT for teaching and learning (Q24) as well as every teacher should be trained in the use of ICT (Q23, 90.1%).

Teachers' answers regarding perceived needs for ICT training (fourth factor) are significantly differentiated according to age ([F.sub.3,790] = 8.177, p<0.001), school area ([F.sub.3,790] = 6.422, p<0.001) and ICT familiarity (t = 3.734, df = 793, p<0.001). More precisely, ANOVA results revealed that respondents aged between 46 and 55 years old place a greater emphasis on the necessity for ICT training, compared to those who are younger. Furthermore, teachers who are over 55 years old also agree with this necessity (Table 10). This fact can be attributed to the ICT familiarity, since the older teachers are logically less familiar with the use of ICT. Considering the school area, respondents teaching in Thessaloniki are more willing to be trained in ICT than those from all the other regions (Table 9). This also can be related to the fact that the percentage of teachers over 55 years old is greater in Thessaloniki, compared to other areas. Finally, teachers who are not familiar with ICT think for the possibility of ICT training more positively than those who are ICT users already (Table 10).

Factor 5: ICT Effect on Teaching and Learning

The fifth factor is related to the influence of ICT on teaching and learning. Variables Q19 (The Internet is useful for the attainment of learning objectives), Q26 (ICT promotes students' active participation in the learning process), Q27 (ICT is useful for teachers in their attempt to attain teaching objectives), Q28 (ICT enhances students' performance) and Q31 (School's role will change dramatically because of the use of the Internet within the next few years) form the fifth factor, with loadings between 0.432 and 0.630 and with 8.4% explanation of the total variance in the sample.

From Table 9, it is obvious that the majority of the teachers agree with the items of the fifth factor. More precisely, 73.4% of the respondents state that ICT promotes students' active participation in the learning process and 72.9% believe that ICT is useful for teachers in their attempt to attain teaching objectives. Moreover, 58.5% indicate that ICT enhances students' performance, 56.6% state that the school's role will change dramatically because of the use of the Internet within the next few years and 56.3% perceive ICT as a useful tool for teaching and learning.

Analysis indicated that both gender and ICT familiarity do not affect the fifth factor. However, school area and age have a significant influence on it. In a few words, teachers, whose schools are situated in urban areas, perceive ICT as a less useful tool for teaching and learning, compared to teachers working in all the other regions (Table 10). This is also the case for teachers aged between 46 and 55 years old (Table 10).

DISCUSSION

According to the research findings, the vast majority of the respondents believe that ICT is a useful tool for teachers and students. They agree that ICT converts students into active learners and they indicate that the new learning opportunities that are offered by the use of the Internet in the classroom will change the image and the role of school within the next few years.

However, an important percent of Greek teachers need more articulate reasons for the introduction of ICT in Greek primary education. They are not certain that new technologies will benefit the society in general and subsequently they are not yet fully convinced about the advisability of the integration of new technologies in primary education "right here, right now." A possible reason of such an attitude is the lack of adequate and careful ICT teacher training. Research suggests that suitable training, especially on the pedagogical aspects of ICT, is necessary so that teachers become aware of the range of uses of ICT in education as well as fully convinced of the possible benefits of the employment of the new technologies for teaching and learning (Jacobsen, Clifford, & Friesen, 2002; Mumtaz, 2000; Lawson & Comber 1999). Moreover, Greek teachers appear to be unable to face even the technical aspects of the exploitation of ICT in primary schools. To be more specific, they point out that the everyday use of ICT in the classroom will create technical problems, which are difficult for teachers to cope with. Therefore, it is not surprising that Greek teachers indicate that, before the employment of ICT in Greek primary schools, they must first of all be well trained to become familiar both with the technical and with the educational applications of ICT. These findings are consistent with the results of other pieces of research, where teachers also indicate their need for more and better training, particularly on the ways that ICT can be used in teaching as well as on the management of the use of ICT in the classroom (Charalambous & Karagiorgi, 2002; Williams et al., 2000; Spanaka, 1998; Simpson et al., 1998; Makrakis, 1997). Thus, the large-scale inservice ICT training initiative, which is organised currently by the Greek Ministry of Education, should not be wasted in providing teachers only with the valuable technical skills, but it should be also dedicated to providing them with the pedagogical skills, which are necessary, in order for the teachers to become proficient ICT users and creative employers of ICT in their everyday teaching.

Teachers also raise the issue of resources. They believe that the mere existence of ICT in a small minority of public primary schools creates inequity problems, violating the principles of Greek General Education. In addition, teachers agree that the absence of ICT from the majority of Greek households engenders this inequality. Furthermore, literature suggests that limited resources are a great impediment to the successful utilisation of ICT for teaching and learning. The lack of computers and appropriate software seriously limits what teachers and pupils can do in the classroom, which in turn appears to result in lack of sufficient ICT experiences for both teachers and pupils (Rosen & Weil, 1995; Winnans & Brown, 1992). Case studies reflecting successful ICT exploitation for educational purposes have shown that it is more than necessary for schools to be provided with excellent facilities, technical support, and financial resources (Youngman & Harrison, 1998; Persichitte & Bauer, 1996). Therefore, the lack of machinery in the vast majority of Greek primary schools seems to be wisely depicted as another vital problem, which must be dealt with before any other decision is taken.

Finally, according to the research findings, the majority of the teachers realize the potential and the importance of ICT for teaching and learning, although they lack the necessary knowledge. At the same time, they do not believe that ICT will downgrade or restrain their role within schools. This is contrary to the results of earlier studies, where teachers--lacking the necessary skills--appear to have little understanding of their role within "ICT schools" as well as of the range of the uses of ICT in school (Williams et al., 2000; Stevenson, 1997; McKinsey, 1997; Bikos, 1995; Dunn & Ridgway, 1994). Thus, taking into account their existing attitudes and perceptions (Cox et al., 1999a, 1999b), ICT training must now provide them with the suitable practical experiences and paradigms, to make them fully understand the new role that they are called upon to play in the classroom and within the learning process, as well as the great variety of the possible uses of new technologies for teaching and learning (Lawson & Comber, 1999).

However, a recent research project concerning the ICT training that takes place in Greek teacher training establishments showed that ICT courses still persist on the development of student-teachers' basic technical skills, while at the same time they seem to overlook the educational aspects of the use of ICT in the classroom (Kiridis, Golia, & Fachandidis, 2003). We hope that our study depicted the antithesis of Greek teachers' ICT training needs to the ICT training that is actually offered to them by teacher training institutions in Greece. It is noteworthy that only a minimal number of studies regarding teachers' ICT training needs have been carried out in Greece. Thus, the initial and inservice ICT training that is offered so far to Greek teachers largely ignores their training needs and their attitudes towards the use ICT for educational purposes. We believe that our study records adequately and offers a clear view of Greek teachers' training needs, opinions, and perceptions concerning the use of ICT in primary school, providing at the same time a basic framework for the reform of ICT teacher training in Greece.

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ARGIRIS KIRIDIS, VANGELIS DROSSOS, AND HELEN TSAKIRIDOU

Aristotle University

Florina, Florinas Greece

[e-mail]

[e-mail]

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Table 1 The Percentile Rank of the Sample in Relation to Gender

Gender  N    %

Male    416   43.7
Female  535   56.3
Total   951  100.0

Table 2 The Percentile Rank of the Sample in Relation to Level of
Urbanisation

Region                     N     %

Athens                    133   14.0
Thessaloniki              274   28.8
Urban areas               327   34.4
Semi--urban areas (town)   66    6.9
Rural areas (village)     148   15.6
Missing                     3    0.3
Total                     951  100.0

Table 3 The Percentile Rank of the Sample in Relation to Years of Age

Years of age   N     %

 25-35        313   32.9
 36-45        460   48.4
 46-55        161   16.9
>55            13    1.4
Missing         4    0.4
Total         951  100.0

Table 4 The Percentile Rank of the Sample in Relation to Marital Status

Marital status              N    %

Single                    154   16.2
Married without children   84    8.8
Married with children     708   74.5
Missing                     5    0.5
Total                     951  100.0

Table 5 The Percentile Rank of the Sample in Relation to the Type of
Primary School Where They Work

School type             N     %

All--day school         95   10.0
One--teacher school     16    1.7
Small, rural school     90    9.5
Many--teachers school  741   77.9
Missing                  9    0.9
Total                  951  100.0

Table 6 The Percentile Rank of the Sample in Relation to Level of
Training

Type of training                    N    %

2-years initial teacher training   831  87.4
4-years initial teacher training   108  11.4
2-years postgraduate               110  11.6
  teacher training
6-months to 2-years additional     340  35.75
  teacher training
MA                                  26   2.7
PhD                                  5   0.5
Regional Training Center           371  39.0
  (3 months or 6 months
  teacher training)
Regional Training Center           191  20.1
  (40 hours training on ICT)
1-year Diploma of Pedagogical       57   6.0
  Studies
Other university degree            145  15.2

Table 7 The Percentile Rank of the Sample in Relation to the Years of
Work Experience

Years of working experience   N      %

 < 5                         145    15.2
   6-15                      439    46.2
  16-25                      262    27.5
> 25                          98    10.3
Missing                        8     0.8
Total                        951   100.0

Table 8 Factors Influencing Teachers' Attitudes Towards the Introduction
of ICT in Primary Schools

Factor Interpretation
   (% variance
   explained)          Loading  Variables Included in the Factor

Students' equal        .915     Q17 (Students who own a PC have an extra
opportunities in ICT            advantage compared to those who do not)
access (14.1%)         .912     Q16 (Students who do not own a PC are in
                                a more disadvantageous position compared
                                to those who do)
                       .780     Q18 (The absence of ICT in many schools
                                throughout the country creates
                                inequality problems among students)
Social effects of the  .696     Q32 (It is not certain that new
ICT use at schools              technologies will benefit the society)
(12.5%)                .623     Q34 (The employment of ICT in schools
                                creates technical problems which are
                                difficult for teachers to cope with)
                       .600     Q29 (More articulate reasons are
                                necessary for the introduction of ICT in
                                schools)
                       .575     Q20 (The use of the Internet for
                                teaching and learning encompasses risks
                                for students)
                       .555     Q35 (The employment of ICT in schools
                                will reduce students' spontaneity and
                                creativity)
                       .478     Q30 (The integration of ICT in schools
                                is a necessary evil)
The introduction of    .807     Q22 (The integration of ICT in schools
ICT in primary                  downgrades teachers' role within the
education and the               learning process)
subsequent changes     .760     Q25 (The employment of ICT in primary
in teachers' role               education restrains teachers' role
(12.2%)                         within schools)
                       .751     Q21 (The introduction of ICT in schools
                                converts teachers into students)
                       .530     Q33 (ICT will replace textbooks)
Teachers' perceived    .866     Q24 (Even teachers who are regular ICT
needs for ICT                   users must be trained in the utilisation
training (10.9%)                of ICT for teaching and learning)
                       .863     Q23 (Taking into account the ongoing
                                introduction of the new technologies in
                                primary education, every teacher must be
                                trained in the use of ICT)
ICT effect on          .630     Q31 (School's role will change
teaching and                    dramatically because of the use of the
learning (8.4%)                 Internet within the next few years)
                       .501     Q28 (ICT enhances students' performance)
                       .479     Q27 (ICT is useful for teachers in their
                                attempt to attain teaching objectives)
                       .487     Q26 (ICT promotes students' active
                                participation in the learning process)
                       .432     Q19 (The Internet is useful for the
                                attainment of learning objectives)

Table 9 Level of Agreement with the Items of Each Factor

     Item                      Strongly agree  Agree

Q16  Students who do not own   (252) 27.9%     (189) 20.9%
     a PC are in a more
     disadvantageous
     position compared to
     those who do
Q17  Students who own a PC     (255) 28.2%     (189) 20.9%
     have an extra advantage
     compared to those who
     do not
Q18  The absence of ICT in     (378) 41.3%     (208) 22.7%
     many schools throughout
     the country creates
     inequality problems
     among students
Q19  The Internet is useful    (275) 30.8%     (230) 25.8%
     for the attainment of
     learning objectives
Q21  The introduction of ICT    (76) 8.4%       (74) 8.2%
     in schools converts
     teachers into students
Q22  The integration of ICT     (30) 3.3%       (44) 4.8%
     in schools downgrades
     teachers' role within
     the learning process
Q23  Taking into account the   (763) 81.8%      (77) 8.3%
     ongoing introduction of
     the new technologies in
     primary education,
     every teacher must be
     trained in the use of
     ICT
Q24  Even teachers who are     (728) 78.4%     (118) 12.7%
     regular ICT users must
     be trained in the
     utilisation of ICT for
     teaching and learning
Q25  The employment of ICT      (48) 5.2%       (62) 6.7%
     in primary education
     restrains teachers'
     role within schools
Q26  ICT promotes students'    (425) 45.9%     (254) 27.5%
     active participation in
     the learning process
Q27  ICT is useful for         (423) 45.6%     (263) 27.3%
     teachers in their
     attempt to attain
     teaching objectives
Q28  ICT enhances students'    (297) 32.4%     (240) 26.1%
     performance
Q29  More articulate reasons   (256) 28.3%     (173) 19.2%
     are necessary for the
     introduction of ICT in
     schools
Q2O  The use of the Internet   (186) 21.0%     (149) 16.9%
     for teaching and
     learning encompasses
     risks for students
Q30  The integration of ICT    (236) 25.5%     (135) 14.6%
     in school is a
     necessary evil
Q31  School's role will        (302) 33.0%     (213) 23.3%
     change dramatically
     because of the use of
     the Internet within the
     next few years
Q32  It is not certain that    (216) 23.6%     (207) 22.6%
     new technologies will
     benefit the society
Q33  ICT will replace           (57) 6.2%       (59) 6.4%
     textbooks
Q34  The employment of ICT     (241) 26.5%     (196) 21.5%
     in schools creates
     technical problems
     which are difficult
     for teachers to cope
     with
Q35  The employment of ICT      (88) 9.5%      (116) 12.5%
     in schools will reduce
     students' spontaneity
     and creativity

                               Neither agree                Strongly
     Item                      or disagree    Disagree      disagree

Q16  Students who do not own   (167) 18.5%    (103) 11.4%   (193) 21.3%
     a PC are in a more
     disadvantageous
     position compared to
     those who do
Q17  Students who own a PC     (176) 19.4%    (104) 11.5%   (181) 20.0%
     have an extra advantage
     compared to those who
     do not
Q18  The absence of ICT in     (131) 14.3%     (74) 8.1%    (125) 13.6%
     many schools throughout
     the country creates
     inequality problems
     among students
Q19  The Internet is useful    (210) 23.5%     (95) 10.6%    (83) 9.3%
     for the attainment of
     learning objectives
Q21  The introduction of ICT   (140) 15.5%    (167) 18.4%   (449) 49.6%
     in schools converts
     teachers into students
Q22  The integration of ICT     (75) 8.1%     (151) 16.4%   (622) 67.5%
     in schools downgrades
     teachers' role within
     the learning process
Q23  Taking into account the    (26) 2.8%      (46) 4.9%     (21) 2.3%
     ongoing introduction of
     the new technologies in
     primary education,
     every teacher must be
     trained in the use of
     ICT
Q24  Even teachers who are      (27) 2.9%      (39) 4.2%     (16) 1.7%
     regular ICT users must
     be trained in the
     utilisation of ICT for
     teaching and learning
Q25  The employment of ICT     (101) 10.9%    (157) 17.0%   (558) 60.3%
     in primary education
     restrains teachers'
     role within schools
Q26  ICT promotes students'    (165) 17.8%     (48) 5.2%     (33) 3.6%
     active participation in
     the learning process
Q27  ICT is useful for         (155) 16.7%     (62) 6.7%     (35) 3.8%
     teachers in their
     attempt to attain
     teaching objectives
Q28  ICT enhances students'    (243) 26.5%     (87) 9.5%     (51) 5.6%
     performance
Q29  More articulate reasons   (139) 15.4%    (130) 14.4%   (205) 22.7%
     are necessary for the
     introduction of ICT in
     schools
Q2O  The use of the Internet   (199) 22.5%    (141) 16.0%   (209) 23.6%
     for teaching and
     learning encompasses
     risks for students
Q30  The integration of ICT    (122) 13.2%    (119) 12.9%   (312) 33.8%
     in school is a
     necessary evil
Q31  School's role will        (188) 23.3%     (86) 9.4%    (125) 13.7%
     change dramatically
     because of the use of
     the Internet within the
     next few years
Q32  It is not certain that    (190) 20.7%    (124) 13.5%   (179) 19.5%
     new technologies will
     benefit the society
Q33  ICT will replace          (144) 15.6%    (181) 19.6%   (484) 52.3%
     textbooks
Q34  The employment of ICT     (177) 19.5%    (121) 13.3%   (175) 19.2%
     in schools creates
     technical problems
     which are difficult
     for teachers to cope
     with
Q35  The employment of ICT     (168) 18.1%    (159) 17.1%   (397) 42.8%
     in schools will reduce
     students' spontaneity
     and creativity

Table 10 Mean Values for each Factor Score According to School Area,
Gender, Age and Knowledge on ICT Use

                  1st Factor  2nd Factor  3rd Factor

Region
Athens            -.19356      .00803     -.00982
Thessaloniki       .03104      .08618      .01127
Urban areas        .07108      .05530     -.05665
Semi-urban areas  -.27953     -.05123     -.00319
Rural areas        .12791     -.24394      .11778

Gender
Men                .01410      .09852      .02860
Women             -.01135     -.07931     -.02302

Age
25-35              .03905     -.01415     -.11460
36-45             -.00930      .05423      .03233
46-55             -.09905     -.11672      .22469
>55                .35978     -.31216     -.98700

Knowledge on ICT
use
Yes               -.08022      .14514      .01643
No                 .09662     -.16982      .02055

                  4th Factor  5th Factor

Region
Athens             .02095      .05904
Thessaloniki       .24009      .03840
Urban areas       -.13516     -.16908
Semi-urban areas   .04712      .03292
Rural areas       -.15452      .21892

Gender
Men                .01022      .00434
Women             -.00823     -.00349

Age
25-35             -.02698      .05040
36-45             -.10760      .02282
46-55              .38495     -.20816
>55                .33220      .54061

Knowledge on ICT
use
Yes               -.12137      .02707
No                 .14239     -.02506