Teachers' occupation-specific work-family conflict.To expand work-family conflict Work-family conflict is “a form of interrole conflict in which the role pressures from the work and family domains are mutually incompatible in some respect. That is participation in the work (family) role is made more difficult by virtue of participation in the family (work) (WFC WFC Wi-Fi Connection (Nintendo gaming service) WFC Wide-Field Camera WFC World Financial Center (New York) WFC Workforce Center WFC World Federation of Chiropractic WFC World Food Council ) research to specific occupations, this study investigated how work and family generic and occupation-specific stressors and support variables related to family interfering with work (F [right arrow] W) and work interfering with family (W [right arrow] F) among 230 Israeli high school teachers. Further expanding WFC research, the authors assessed WFC effects on burnout Burnout Depletion of a tax shelter's benefits. In the context of mortgage backed securities it refers to the percentage of the pool that has prepaid their mortgage. and vigor VIGOR Internal medicine A clinical study–Vioxx GI Outcomes Report comparing a proprietary COX-2 inhibitor to standard NSAIDs . Results indicated that W [right arrow] F conflict was related to generic variables and more so to distinctive teaching characteristics (e.g., investment in student behavior and parent-teacher relations). Both W [right arrow] F and F [right arrow] W predicted burnout, whereas only F [right arrow] W predicted vigor. Implications for WFC research and occupational health programs are discussed. ********** Profound changes in the world of work in recent decades, such as rising numbers of women in career trajectories, have stimulated much research on work-family conflict (WFC) (Grzywacz & Marks, 2000). WFC is a form of interrole conflict comprising incompatible incompatible adj. 1) inconsistent. 2) unmatching. 3) unable to live together as husband and wife due to irreconcilable differences. In no-fault divorce states, if one of the spouses desires to end the marriage, that fact proves incompatibility, and a divorce pressures from work and family roles (Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). Results of this research have repeatedly demonstrated the negative effects of WFC on employees' behavior, emotions, and health (see Frone, 2003) and have underscored the importance of reducing the conflict. Most research on WFC antecedents and outcomes use generic models to study managerial and demanding occupations (Cinamon & Rich, 2005). These models usually focus on the association between WFC and certain work stressors, assuming that such general stressors affect a wide variety of occupations similarly. However, these models often disregard distinctive aspects of particular occupations that may also affect WFC. Moreover, recent evidence demonstrates that certain occupations have unique role stressors that contribute to employees' stress (Bacharach Bach´a`rach n. 1. A kind of wine made at This page or section lists people with the surname Bamberger. If an internal link for a specific person referred you to this page, you may wish to add the given name(s) to that wikilink. , 1992; Narayanan Narayanan may mean
n. A medieval merchant guild or trade association. [Middle English, from Old French, from Middle Low German, from Old High German hansa, military troop. , 2002; Van Der Doef & Maes, 2002). Assessment of effects of unique stressors on WFC in specific occupations, in addition to effects of general occupational stressors, should provide a richer and more comprehensive picture of WFC antecedents. This approach may also enable developers of occupational health programs to focus on those elements proven effective in combating specific stressors in particular occupations. Extending WFC research to specific occupations, this study investigated WFC among teachers, a profession largely overlooked by WFC researchers To illustrate the benefits of occupation-specific WFC research, we examined variables unique to teaching in addition to generic, universal variables often examined in WFC research. Although we were primarily interested in general and occupation-specific stressors' effects on WFC, the lack of research on teachers' work-family relations also stimulated analysis of two important outcomes of teachers' WFC: burnout and vigor. Antecedents of WFC Much research has explored antecedents of two types of WFC: when work is perceived as interfering with family (W [right arrow] F) and when family is perceived as interfering with work (F [right arrow] W). Most results indicate that stressors from work more heavily influence W [right arrow] F conflict, whereas family stressors more heavily influence F [right arrow] W conflict. Many researchers have investigated role characteristics that presumably pre·sum·a·ble adj. That can be presumed or taken for granted; reasonable as a supposition: presumable causes of the disaster. produce role-related stress that diminishes one's capacity to meet demands of other roles (see Frone, 2003). Several studies found that W [right arrow] F conflict relates positively to number of hours employees devote to work (Grzywacz & Marks, 2000) and negatively to flexible schedules and managerial support (Bernas & Major, 2000). Some stressors contributing to WFC may be common to most occupations, but the effects of stressors within different occupations will probably vary as a function of job and setting characteristics (Naraynan et al., 1999; Spark & Cooper, 1999). Researchers have also raised this claim for other work stress concepts, such as burnout (e.g., Byrne, 1999; Maslach, 1999). Accordingly, it is likely that commonly investigated generic variables, such as flexibility and number of work hours, will render varying effects on WFC in different occupations because of their unique characteristics. Examination of WFC in specific occupations may reveal that employees in different occupations establish distinct patterns of relationships between work and family roles. For example, flexibility of work hours may play a major role in moderating WFC in occupations that demand relatively fixed work schedules (e.g., factory workers), but its influence on WFC among employees who have more latitude latitude, angular distance of any point on the surface of the earth north or south of the equator. The equator is latitude 0°, and the North Pole and South Pole are latitudes 90°N and 90°S, respectively. to arrange their workday (e.g., artists) may be quite small. Likewise, number of work hours as a role stressor may have dissimilar effects on WFC for jobs that require individuals to spend their entire workday at the workplace, as opposed to occupations in which employees frequently apply ideas that were cultivated cultivated, n in herbal medicine, used to describe plants that are commercially farmed rather than collected from the wild. in their "free time" away from the work site. The latter typifies designers, teachers, and scientists, among others, who produce valuable work ideas away from the formal workplace. Recent research has also established that unique stressors characterize particular occupations. For example, Simmons (2000) revealed that a patient's death was especially stressful for hospital nurses. Lloyd, King, and Chenoweth (2002) found that tension between social workers' professional philosophy and their work environment contributed to stress and burnout. Engineers reported that waste of time and interpersonal in·ter·per·son·al adj. 1. Of or relating to the interactions between individuals: interpersonal skills. 2. conflicts were especially stressful to them (Keenan & Newton, 1985). Van Der Doef and Maes (2002) showed that student aggression aggression, a form of behavior characterized by physical or verbal attack. It may appear either appropriate and self-protective, even constructive, as in healthy self-assertiveness, or inappropriate and destructive. and professional education explained significant amounts of variance The discrepancy between what a party to a lawsuit alleges will be proved in pleadings and what the party actually proves at trial. In Zoning law, an official permit to use property in a manner that departs from the way in which other property in the same locality in teacher burnout. These studies support the value of conducting occupation-specific investigations to understand how specific work factors influence WFC in particular occupations instead of relying exclusively on generic models. Another reason for advocating occupation-specific investigations is that global measures of stress that are removed from real work experiences provide inaccurate information that is relevant to only limited aspects of employee roles (Shirom, 1988). In contrast, occupation-specific stress measures that are sensitive to particular work situations are well understood by respondents In the context of marketing research, a representative sample drawn from a larger population of people from whom information is collected and used to develop or confirm marketing strategy. from that occupation and provide more accurate and valid information. Unique Characteristics of the Teaching Profession Teaching occupies a special position regarding WFC. The fact that teachers' work extends beyond the work site and requires them to expend ex·pend tr.v. ex·pend·ed, ex·pend·ing, ex·pends 1. To lay out; spend: expending tax revenues on government operations. See Synonyms at spend. 2. much effort at home raises questions regarding teachers' responses to generic WFC stressors, such as number and flexibility of work hours. Indeed, Cinamon and Rich (2005) found that many general variables established by research as antecedents of WFC among female managers and high-tech workers did not explain teachers' WFC. Their findings suggest that stressors related directly to teaching may better explain the variance in teachers' WFC. Considerable research has reported specific factors in teachers' work that cause stress and reduced sense of efficacy. In general, frustration of goal attainment constitutes an important source of teacher stress. For example, student misbehavior and class management demands are major stressors for teachers (Hastings & Bham, 2003), as is parent intrusion in teachers' work (Dworkin, 1997). Other factors include large class size, many students with special needs in class, and low student achievement (Maslach & Leiter, 1999; Ross Ross , Sir Ronald 1857-1932. British physician. He won a 1902 Nobel Prize for proving that malaria is transmitted to humans by the bite of the mosquito. , 1998). The present study examined three occupation-specific variables--class size, investment in student misbehavior, and investment in relations with parents--and five generic variables--flexibility of work hours, number of work hours, manager support, colleague support, and spousal spou·sal adj. 1. Of or relating to marriage; nuptial. 2. Of or relating to a spouse. n. Marriage; nuptials. Often used in the plural. support--as antecedents of teachers' WFC. We predicted that teachers' occupation-specific stressors would explain considerable variance in teachers' W [right arrow] F conflict in addition to that explained by generic stressors. Outcomes of WFC This study also examined outcomes of teachers' WFC. The dearth of research regarding WFC and teachers has yielded little evidence on its effects (Cinamon & Rich, 2005). To address this deficiency, we investigated teacher burnout and vigor, two outcomes linked to employees' health and work performance. Scholars conceptualize con·cep·tu·al·ize v. con·cep·tu·al·ized, con·cep·tu·al·iz·ing, con·cep·tu·al·iz·es v.tr. To form a concept or concepts of, and especially to interpret in a conceptual way: burnout as a reaction of human service workers to stress that generates negative work outcomes, such as turnover, absenteeism ab·sen·tee·ism n. 1. Habitual failure to appear, especially for work or other regular duty. 2. The rate of occurrence of habitual absence from work or duty. , and low organizational commitment In the study of organizational behavior and Industrial/Organizational Psychology, organizational commitment is, in a general sense, the employee's psychological attachment to the organization. , as well as reduced psychological and physical well-being (Shirom, 2003). Definitions of burnout usually encompass three aspects: emotional exhaustion Emotional exhaustion is a chronic state of physical and emotional depletion that results from excessive job demands and continuous hassles.[1] it describes feeling of being emotionally overextended and exhausted by one's work. , depersonalization depersonalization /de·per·son·al·iza·tion/ (de-per?sun-al-i-za´shun) alteration in the perception of self so that the usual sense of one's own reality is temporarily lost or changed; it may be a manifestation of a neurosis or another , and sense of reduced personal accomplishment. Emotional exhaustion refers to one's feelings of depletion depletion n. when a natural resource (particularly oil) is being used up. The annual amount of depletion may, ironically, provide a tax deduction for the company exploiting the resource because if the resource they are exploiting runs out, they will no longer be able of emotional resources. It is regarded as the fundamental component of burnout that leads to depersonalization (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2000). Research has shown that this dimension is most responsive to the nature and intensity of work-related stress (Lee & Ashforth, 1996; Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). Ample evidence indicates that many teachers experience burnout and that it has both generic and specific antecedents (Burke The name Burke (from Irish Gaelic de Burca, of Norman origin). In English the meaning of the name Burke is "fortified hill." See also Berkley. Places Australia
1 City (1990 pop. 37,446), seat of Jackson co., S Mich., on the Grand River; inc. 1857. It is an industrial and commercial center in a farm region. , and Leiter (1996) concluded that general organizational stressors relating positively to educator burnout include role conflict and ambiguity Ambiguity Delphic oracle ultimate authority in ancient Greece; often speaks in ambiguous terms. [Gk. Hist.: Leach, 305] Iseult’s vow pledge to husband has double meaning. [Arth. , whereas participatory decision making, social support, and lack of autonomy relate negatively. Researchers have also examined specific stressors, discovering that disruptive disruptive /dis·rup·tive/ (-tiv) 1. bursting apart; rending. 2. causing confusion or disorder. and disrespectful dis·re·spect·ful adj. Having or exhibiting a lack of respect; rude and discourteous. dis  re·spect student behavior predicted teacher burnout
(Burke, Greenglass, & Schwarzer, 1996; Hastings & Bham, 2003;
Van Der Doef & Maes, 2002), as did negative relations with students
or staff (Dorman, 2003). Given the high incidence of teacher burnout and
its negative effects, we examined whether W [right arrow] F conflict and
F [right arrow] W conflict, in addition to other specific and generic
stressors, contribute to teachers' emotional exhaustion, the
primary component of burnout.
Recently, a few researchers investigating burnout have begun to study work engagement. Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) regarded engagement as different from burnout but not its polar opposite that which is conspicuously different in most important respects. See also: Opposite . An important component of work engagement is vigor, which Schaufeli, Bakker, and Salanova (2004) described as consisting of high levels of effort, energy, resilience resilience (r  ·zilˑ·yens),n , and persistence (1) In a CRT, the time a phosphor dot remains illuminated after being energized. Long-persistence phosphors reduce flicker, but generate ghost-like images that linger on screen for a fraction of a second. . Vigor represents a positive affective affective /af·fec·tive/ (ah-fek´tiv) pertaining to affect. af·fec·tive adj. 1. Concerned with or arousing feelings or emotions; emotional. 2. response to one's interactions with elements in the job and the job environment. Thus, it is likely that low levels of WFC are associated with high levels of employee vigor, whereas elevated levels of WFC are associated with reduced vigor. Accordingly, we were interested in examining the relationship between WFC and vigor. Furthermore, it is valuable to determine whether general and specific WFC variables affect burnout and vigor with similar strength but in opposite directions or whether the relationships follow unique patterns. In sum, this study investigated the contribution of general and unique stressors to high school teachers' W [right arrow] F conflict and F [right arrow] W conflict as well as the relationships between these conflicts and burnout and vigor. Method Participants Participants were 230 teachers (48 men, 182 women) between the ages of 26 to 66 years (M = 43.3, SD = 9.64). Participants were recruited from five public high schools in one school district that served Jewish students of middle and low socioeconomic status socioeconomic status, n the position of an individual on a socio-economic scale that measures such factors as education, income, type of occupation, place of residence, and in some populations, ethnicity and religion. . Sixty-seven percent of the participants (n = 154) had a BA or a BEd, 28% (n = 64) had a master's degree master's degree n. An academic degree conferred by a college or university upon those who complete at least one year of prescribed study beyond the bachelor's degree. Noun 1. , and 1% (n = 2) had a doctorate. Four percent of the participants (n = 10) did not provide information on their degree. Years of teaching experience ranged from 1 to 39 (M = 15.7, SD = 9.6). Mean number of reported weekly work hours was 33 (SD = 12.3). Only married teachers were included in the sample. Years of marriage ranged from 1 to 39 (M = 16.43, SD = 9.55). The vast majority (96.5%) of the teachers had children (M = 2.76, SD = 1.4). Measures WFC. Cinamon and Rich's (2002a) adaptation of Gutek, Searle, and Klepa's (1991) Work-Family Conflict Scale measured teachers' perceptions of W [right arrow] F conflict and F [right arrow] W conflict on a 5-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Seven items assessed W [right arrow] F conflict (e.g., "My work takes up time I want to invest in my family"), and seven items assessed F [right arrow] W conflict (e.g., "My family demands and personal problems interfere with my work"). Factor analysis with varimax rotation on the present data validated val·i·date tr.v. val·i·dat·ed, val·i·dat·ing, val·i·dates 1. To declare or make legally valid. 2. To mark with an indication of official sanction. 3. Gutek et al.'s two-factor solution with the expected items. Cronbach's alphas Cronbach's  (alpha) has an important use as a measure of the reliability of a psychometric instrument. It was first named as alpha by Cronbach (1951), as he had intended to continue with further instruments. of internal reliability were .78 for W
[right arrow] F conflict and .81 for F [right arrow] W conflict.
Manager, colleague, and spousal support spousal support n. payment for support of an ex-spouse (or a spouse while a divorce is pending) ordered by the court. More commonly called alimony, spousal support is the term used in California and a few other states as part of new non-confrontational language (such . Cinamon and Rich's (2002b) adaptation of Loerch, Russell, and Rush's (1989) manager support subscale assessed teachers' perceptions of manager, colleague, and spousal support. The adapted version included 14 items assessing perceptions of (a) manager support (n = 5; e.g., "My manager shows interest in my family life"), (b) colleague support (n = 4; e.g., "I get support from my colleagues"), and (c) spousal support (n = 5; e.g., "My spouse spouse A legal marriage partner as defined by state law is interested in my work"). Participants responded to randomly presented items on a 5-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Factor analysis with varimax rotation of the expanded 14-item scale validated Loerch et al.'s three-factor solution with the expected items. Satisfactory internal reliability was achieved, with alphas of .77, .76, and .87 for the manager support, colleague support, and spouse support subscales, respectively. Flexible work hours. Perception of flexible work hours was assessed using two items from Izraeli's (1993) research: "It is usually difficult to change my working hours" and "There is a lot of flexibility in my working hours." The correlation between these items was r = .52. Emotional exhaustion. Participants responded to five items from the Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey (Schaufeli, Leiter, Maslach, & Jackson, 1996), describing work-related emotional exhaustion (e.g., "I feel tired when I wake up in the morning to a new work day") on a 7-point scale, ranging from 0 (never) to 6 (every day). Internal reliability of the scale was alpha = .84. Feelings of vigor at work. Four items from the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (Schaufeli et al., 2004; e.g., "At work, I feel strong and vigorous") assessed vigor on a 7-point scale, ranging from 0 (never) to 6 (every day). Internal reliability was alpha = .77. Teachers' perceived investment in students' behavior problems. Two items with a common stem, "Students' behavior problems that you deal with demand from you ...," assessed teachers' time and emotional investment in students' behavioral behavioral pertaining to behavior. behavioral disorders see vice. behavioral seizure see psychomotor seizure. problems. Teachers responded to the stem twice, once on a 10-point scale ranging from 1 (little time investment) to 10 (huge time investment) and the second time on a 10-point scale ranging from 1 (low emotional investment) to 10 (huge emotional investment). Teachers' perceived investment in students' parents. Two items with a common stem, "Relations with your students' parents demand from you ...," assessed teachers' time and emotional investment in students' parents. Teachers responded to the stem twice, once on a 10-point scale ranging from 1 (low time investment) to 10 (huge time investment) and the second time on a 10-point scale ranging from 1 (low emotional investment) to 10 (huge emotional investment). Professional and demographic variables. A questionnaire was also administered to collect information regarding teacher's gender, age, marital status marital status, n the legal standing of a person in regard to his or her marriage state. and length of marriage, number and ages of children living at home, years of teaching experience, number of weekly work hours, number of weekly hours in housework, number of spouse's work hours, whether the respondent In Equity practice, the party who answers a bill or other proceeding in equity. The party against whom an appeal or motion, an application for a court order, is instituted and who is required to answer in order to protect his or her interests. filled another role in school, number of students in the teacher's class, and number of students with special needs in the class. Procedure After receiving approval from the appropriate authorities, we distributed questionnaires to 400 teachers in five high schools. Each questionnaire set was in an open manila Manila (mənĭl`ə), city (1990 pop. 1,601,234), capital of the Philippines, SW Luzon, on Manila Bay. Manila is the center of the country's largest metropolitan area, its chief port, and the focus of all governmental, commercial, industrial, envelope that also contained a letter from the researchers (the authors of this article) on university stationery The term for boilerplate in the Eudora mail client, starting with Version 3.0. Stationery files are stored on disk and brought into new messages or added to replies. See boilerplate. that solicited participation, ensured anonymity, and requested teachers to return the questionnaires in the sealed envelope to the school secretary within 2 weeks. Presentation sequence of the main instruments was counterbalanced coun·ter·bal·ance n. 1. A force or influence equally counteracting another. 2. A weight that acts to balance another; a counterpoise or counterweight. tr.v. . Participants had unlimited time to complete the questionnaires. We excluded from the 260 returned questionnaires those participants who did not respond to all items, individuals whom we suspected of random response, and unmarried teachers. A total of 230 complete questionnaire sets were analyzed an·a·lyze tr.v. an·a·lyzed, an·a·lyz·ing, an·a·lyz·es 1. To examine methodically by separating into parts and studying their interrelations. 2. Chemistry To make a chemical analysis of. 3. (58%). Results Table 1 presents means, standard deviations In statistics, the average amount a number varies from the average number in a series of numbers. (statistics) standard deviation - (SD) A measure of the range of values in a set of numbers. , and intercorrelations for the main variables examined in this study. Antecedents of WFC To examine generic and specific antecedents of high school teachers' WFC, we conducted two linear regression Linear regression A statistical technique for fitting a straight line to a set of data points. analyses for each of the two dependent variables: W [right arrow] F conflict and F [right arrow] W conflict. In the first regression regression, in psychology: see defense mechanism. regression In statistics, a process for determining a line or curve that best represents the general trend of a data set. , the first step comprised the following occupation-specific stressors: class size, number of students with special needs, investment in student misbehavior, and investment in relations with parents. The second step comprised generic stressor variables from the work domain: number of work hours, manager support, colleague support, and flexibility of work hours. The third step included generic stressor variables from the family domain: number of children, number of hours invested in housework, and spousal support. In the second regression, generic stressors were entered in the first step. The second step comprised the generic family stressors, and the occupation-specific stressors were entered in the third step. We determined the order of entry for the three groups of variables. Within each group, each variable was entered according to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. its contribution to explaining the variance in the dependent variable. The first regression shows the contribution of the generic stressors to the dependent variable above that of the occupation-specific stressors. The second regression reflects the contribution of occupation-specific stressors to the dependent variable that exceeded that of the generic stressors. Tables 2 and 3 present the contribution of occupation-specific stressors (the second regression). Examination of the two regressions of W [right arrow] F conflict demonstrates that the specific stressors explained more variance of the W [right arrow] F conflict than did the generic stressors. The models of the two regressions explained 16% of the variance in the W [right arrow] F conflict. Table 2 indicates that the specific teacher variables explaining 11% of the variance were investment in student misbehavior and investment in relations with parents. Even when specific stressors were entered in the third step and not in the first step, they explained an additional 10% of the variance. Greater investment in student misbehavior raised W [right arrow] F conflict (r = .30, p < .01), as did greater investment in relations with parents (r = .27, p < .01). Perceptions of enhanced manager support explained another 4% of the variance and were related to teachers' lower levels of W [right arrow] F conflict. Examination of the two regressions of F [right arrow] W conflict indicates that the two regression models explained 13% of the variance of the F [right arrow] W conflict. Table 3 demonstrates that unique teaching stressors explained 4% of the variance; only investment in student misbehavior made a significant contribution (r = .14, p < .05). Generic work stressors (Step 3) explained 6% of the variance, with flexibility of work hours (r = -.19, p < .01) and manager support (r = -.13, p < .05) reducing the F [right arrow] W conflict. Generic family stressors explained only 3% of the variance of F [right arrow] W conflict. Spousal support was the only significant predictor from the family domain of F [right arrow] W conflict (r = -.13, p < .05); it reduced F [right arrow] W conflict. In sum, regression analysis In statistics, a mathematical method of modeling the relationships among three or more variables. It is used to predict the value of one variable given the values of the others. For example, a model might estimate sales based on age and gender. indicated that the occupation-specific stressors, investment in student misbehavior, and investment in relations with parents significantly contributed to explain the variance in teachers' WFC. Two general stressors also significantly predicted WFC, but the specific stressors were considerably more powerful predictors than were the general stressors. These results support this study's argument regarding the advantages of examining both unique and generic stressors in specific occupations. We also investigated whether teachers evidence the typical pattern found for other occupations whereby work stressors more heavily influence W [right arrow] F conflict and family stressors more heavily influence F [right arrow] W conflict. Table 2 indicates that work but not family stressors explained significant amounts of variance in teachers' W [right arrow] F conflict. The outcome regarding F [right arrow] W conflict is less clear. Correlations between the four stressors that contributed significantly to the F [right arrow] W conflict were significant but low, and three of them--investment in student misbehavior, flexibility of work hours, and manager support--derived from the work domain. In the family domain, only spousal support correlated cor·re·late v. cor·re·lat·ed, cor·re·lat·ing, cor·re·lates v.tr. 1. To put or bring into causal, complementary, parallel, or reciprocal relation. 2. significantly with the F [right arrow] W conflict. These results suggest that work stressors explain more variance in WFC than do family stressors. Antecedents of Burnout and Vigor Another goal of this study aimed to assess teachers' burnout and vigor as a function of their WFC. We conducted linear regression analyses with emotional exhaustion (burnout) and vigor as the dependent variables. The first step of the regression included occupation-specific stressor variables. Generic work stressor variables composed the second step. We entered generic family stressors in the third step and W [right arrow] F conflict and F [right arrow] W conflict in the fourth step. Rules for order of entry of variables were the same as in the earlier analyses. The model explained 40% of the variance in teachers' emotional exhaustion. Specific stressors explained 5% of the variance; investment in student misbehavior made the only significant contribution ([beta] = .21, p < .01). Another 8% of the variance was explained by manager support ([beta] = -.31, p < .01). None of the generic family stressor variables explained significant amounts of variance in teacher burnout. Twenty-seven percent of the variance was explained by W [right arrow] F conflict ([beta] = .42, p < .01) and F [right arrow] W conflict ([beta] = .24, p < .01), both of which increased teachers' emotional exhaustion. The entire model explained 22% of the variance of vigor. Manager support explained 16% of the variance and was associated with increased vigor ([beta] = .35, p < .01). Whereas both W [right arrow] F conflict and F [right arrow] W conflict contributed to burnout and explained 27% of the variance, only F [right arrow] W conflict contributed an additional 6% of the variance ([beta] = -.28, p < .01). Increased F [right arrow] W conflict was associated with less vigor. Discussion Consistent with the need for occupation-specific investigations to disclose how psychosocial psychosocial /psy·cho·so·cial/ (si?ko-so´shul) pertaining to or involving both psychic and social aspects. psy·cho·so·cial adj. Involving aspects of both social and psychological behavior. factors at work influence stress (Pousette & Hanse, 2002; Van Der Doef & Maes, 2002), the current study examined the contribution of generic stressors from the work and family domains and of variables unique to teaching to high school teachers' WFC. Results suggest some advantages of occupation-specific inquiry. Although correlations were only moderate to relatively low, generic stressors and variables unique to teaching provided significant contributions to explaining teachers' W [right arrow] F conflict. Specific variables included teacher investment in student behavior problems and in establishing and maintaining relations with the students' parents. Contrary to typical results of WFC research, in this study, flexibility of teachers' work hours was positively correlated with WFC. This result can be explained by the possibility that, for teachers, flexibility of work hours means that one can leave the work site early and take occupational tasks home. Flexible work hours allow teachers to work less time at school and more at home. Clearly, the relationship between role stressors and WFC is not the same for all occupations. Regarding the outcomes of WFC, both W [right arrow] F conflict and F [right arrow] W conflict predicted teacher burnout. Burke and Greenglass (2001) also found that both types of WFC were positively associated with high levels of burnout among nursing staff in hospitals. However, there is good reason to assume that a circular relationship exists. High levels of conflict lead to increased burnout, which reduces one's ability to handle stressors successfully, including demands from work and family. Indeed, in a recent longitudinal study longitudinal study a chronological study in epidemiology which attempts to establish a relationship between an antecedent cause and a subsequent effect. See also cohort study. , Westman, Etzion, and Gortler (2004) found that burnout preceded W [right arrow] F conflict. This finding accords with Schaufeli and Buunk's (2002) claim that individuals in an advanced phase of burnout report more negative work experiences, such as greater stress, more conflicts, and more role problems. Whereas burnout was related to both kinds of WFC, vigor was predicted by F [right arrow] W conflict only. This is in line with Schaufeli and Buunk's (2002) theorizing that people with high levels of vigor may find that intrusions from home to work reduce their vigor at work; however, interference from work to home does not affect vigor at work. Results here suggest that emotional exhaustion and vigor are distinct, albeit related, concepts. The correlation between them was negative but relatively low (r = -.25, p < .05), and they were predicted by different variables. Regarding the predictors of vigor, it should be mentioned that work engagement is the result of resources in the organization that have motivational potential because they make work meaningful. One such resource that received empirical support in the current study was social support. Receiving social support from one's manager and colleagues was linked to higher levels of vigor, indicating that social support is a resource that has an energizing energizing, adj giving energy to; revitalizing; rejuvenating. function. In addition, number of work hours was positively related to vigor but unrelated to burnout. This may be due to teachers who have high levels of satisfaction and/or efficacy who work longer hours and display higher levels of vigor. Inasmuch as in·as·much as conj. 1. Because of the fact that; since. 2. To the extent that; insofar as. inasmuch as conj 1. since; because 2. the present study on teachers' WFC demonstrated the importance of occupation-specific aspects of teachers' work, further research should examine these aspects in a more detailed manner. For example, we were surprised that measures such as the total number of students and the number of students with special needs in the classroom, occupation-specific variables previously shown to contribute to teachers' stress (Ross, 1998), did not correlate with teachers' WFC. One explanation may be that participating teachers reported that there were fewer students in their classes, on average, than in the typical Israeli classroom (26 students vs. 30 students; Israel Central Bureau of Statistics The Israel Central Bureau of Statistics (Hebrew: הלשכה המרכזית לסטטיסטיקה, , 2004); hence, these teachers may have felt that these factors were not especially stressful. It would also be valuable to ascertain the particular nature of students' special needs. Certain "special needs" make extraordinary demands on teachers' resources, whereas others may be satisfied more routinely by the classroom teacher or by means of pullout pull·out n. 1. A withdrawal, especially of troops. 2. Change from a dive to level flight. Used of an aircraft. 3. An object designed to be pulled out. Noun 1. programs that reduce homeroom home·room n. A school classroom to which a group of pupils of the same grade are required to report each day. Noun 1. homeroom teachers' stress. With regard to methodological issues, as in many previous studies on WFC and occupational stress among teachers, all measures here were based on self-report. Exclusive dependence on self-report measures may limit the validity of the findings. Validity of results could be enhanced by gathering information from school administrators, colleagues, and spouses, as well as from self-reports. In addition, researchers and practitioners outside of Israel are cautioned about the generalizability of the findings because of possible cultural differences in work-family relations among teachers that could affect the issues investigated in this study. Results of the present study highlight practical implications concerning the importance of using occupation-specific models of WFC when developing occupational health programs. Instead of trying to reduce teachers' WFC by designing more flexible work hours, as would stem from generic models, it might be more effective to assist teachers to cope effectively with student behavior problems. Alternatively, helping teachers to interact constructively with students' parents may offer a more useful strategy than reducing teachers' work hours. Indeed, Berridge, Cooper, and Highley (1997) mentioned specific components as the first level of essential elements of an integrated and systematic approach to employee assistance programs. Results of the present study support a strategy that blends generic and occupation-specific factors in seeking to enhance work-family relations and to minimize their negative effects. References Bacharach, S., & Bamberger, P. (1992). Causal models A causal model is an abstract model that uses cause and effect logic to describe the behaviour of a system. See also [IMG][1]]
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TABLE 1 Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations Between the
Research Variables
Variable M SD 1 2 3 4 5
1. W [right arrow] 3.30 0.90 --
F conflict
2. F [right arrow] 2.05 0.73 .47** --
W conflict
3. Manager 3.29 0.94 -.09 -.12 --
support
4. Spousal 3.94 0.90 -.13* -.17* .16* --
support
5. Colleague 3.83 0.76 .01 .01 .59** .15* --
support
6. Burnout 3.20 1.4 .55** .46** -.23** -.08 -.06
7. Vigor 4.64 1.0 -.06 -.27** .38** .06 .27**
8. Investment in 5.62 2.3 .28** .05 .04 -.06 .07
parents
9. Investment in 6.78 2.3 .30** .17* .06 .01 .03
student
misbehavior
10. Number of 8.78 7.0 .06 .08 .07 -.12 -.00
special need
students
11. Flexible hours 2.87 0.66 .12 .19** .05 .01 .14*
12. Class size 26.60 7.7 .05 .07 .05 -.05 -.04
13. Number of 32.05 8.4 .04 -.04 .16* .05 .19**
work hours
Variable 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
1. W [right arrow]
F conflict
2. F [right arrow]
W conflict
3. Manager
support
4. Spousal
support
5. Colleague
support
6. Burnout --
7. Vigor -.25** --
8. Investment in .10 .08 --
parents
9. Investment in .20** .06 .57** --
student
misbehavior
10. Number of .07 -.06 .06 .07 --
special need
students
11. Flexible hours .09 .01 .05 .14* -.05 --
12. Class size -.02 -.07 .09 .00 .16* -.02 --
13. Number of -.08 .14* .07 -.05 .08 -.06 -.03 --
work hours
Note. W [right arrow] F conflict = work-interfering-with-family
conflict; F [right arrow] W conflict = family-interfering-with-work
conflict.
*p< .05. **p < .01.
TABLE 2 Significant Variables in the Linear Regression Predicting
Work [right arrow] Family Conflict (N = 230)
Step and Variable B SE B [beta]
Step 1: Occupation-specific stressors
Investment in student misbehavior .086 .033 .22***
Investment in relations with parents .055 .032 .05*
Step 2: Generic work stressors
Investment in student misbehavior .008 .032 .20***
Manager support -.186 .082 -.19***
Step 3: Generic family stressors
Note. [R.sup.2] = .11 for Step 1; [DELTA][R.sup.2] = .04 for Step 2;
[DELTA][R.sup.2] = .01 for Step 3.
*p < .05. ***p < .001.
TABLE 3 Significant Variables in the Linear Regression Predicting
Family [right arrow] Work Conflict (N = 230)
Step and Variable B SE B [beta]
Step 1: Occupation-specific stressors
Investment in student misbehavior .07 .03 .20***
Step 2: Generic family stressors
Investment in student misbehavior .07 .03 .22***
Spousal support -.14 .06 -.17*
Step 3: Generic work stressors
Investment in student misbehavior .06 .03 .20*
Spousal support -.14 .06 -.16*
Manager support .14 .07 .18*
Flexibility of work hours .18 .08 .16*
Note. [R.sup.2] = .04 for Step 1; [DELTA][R.sup.2] = .03 for Step 2;
[DELTA][R.sup.2] = .06 for Step 3.
*p < .05. ***p < .001.
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