Teachers' efficacy in preparation and retention.

Abstract

Researchers, policy makers, and university faculty continue to debate reasons for teacher attrition. By looking at dispositions and teachers' feelings of efficacy, insight can be gained into the teacher shortage issue. This article uses survey data from novice teachers to make recommendations for teacher preparation programs and supervising administrators. Changes can be made that positively impact the beginning experiences of novice teachers and ultimately encourage teacher retention. Teacher efficacy is shown as a major factor in teacher retention and satisfaction.

Introduction

Teacher shortages are a growing concern across the United States (Wesley, 2003; Wong, 2002). Professional literature describes reasons that teachers across the nation leave the teaching profession (Boe & Bobbit, 1997; Whitener, Gruber, Lynch, Tingos, & Fondelier, 1997). Numerous studies from this body of literature focus on "external issues" such as school atmosphere, low pay, etc. (Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Ingersoll, 2001 McCreight, 2000). Analysis of information about why teachers leave is vital to the study of retention and attrition. However, an alternate view of the issue might place focus on characteristics and critical factors that influence those who succeed and remain in the profession. Fewer studies target "internal issues" that appear to enhance or preclude longevity in the field, such as teachers' dispositions and their levels of confidence and efficacy. By identifying and understanding personal and professional attributes, behaviors, and school setting conditions associated with teacher efficacy, educator preparation programs and supervising administrators might proactively impact the confidence and success of new teachers and ultimately affect reductions in attrition. Certainly, the potential influences of these factors merit careful examination by those who train and supervise new teachers and who strive to support their development and success.

Efficacy

The term "efficacy" can be defined as the power to produce an effect. Teachers who possess a sense of professional efficacy believe they have the power to produce desired effects in their classrooms and in their schools. Although it has been common to relate a new teacher's potential for staying or leaving the profession to specific external factors, a careful review of the research and literature on retention suggests that a perceived lack of efficacy, which can be defined as an internal factor, is often a cause in the attrition rates seen among new teachers. The influences of classroom and school culture and environments have received much attention in the literature. Critical research in these areas led Darling-Hammond (2003) to conclude that "teachers' feelings about administrative support, resources for teaching, and teacher input into decision-making are strongly related to their plans to stay in teaching and to their reasons for leaving" (p.9). Additional factors, including increased accountability, increased paperwork, lack of parental support, and student attitudes, have also been associated with the attrition of experienced teachers (Tye & O'Brien, 2002). They concluded "apparently, it was the work environment itself that ultimately proved unbearable, and the pressures connected to standardized testing were a prominent feature of that work environment" (p.27).

The examination of external factors affecting teachers has traditionally been the focus of research on reasons for teacher attrition. However, there is much to suggest internal factors such as one's skills, beliefs, dispositions, and sense of efficacy play an equally important role. The retention of novice teachers or lack thereof, is a problem influenced by a host of factors that are often interrelated (Boe & Bobbit, 1997; Darling-Hammond, 2003; McCreight, 2000; Wesley, 2003). Barriers to longevity include both internal characteristics of novices as well as external characteristics of teaching settings and school environments. Peske, Liu, Johnson, Kauflman and Kardos (2001) described new teachers, not as a homogenous group of committed individuals who have "heard a calling," but as a varied and diverse population, many of whom "approach teaching tentatively or conditionally" (p. 305). Many new teachers who leave the profession report feelings of isolation, a perceived lack of control over critical decisions, and extreme stress over classroom learning and behavior issues. Some research suggests this may be due in part to a lack of the internalized commitment and sense of efficacy needed for successful teaching. Nieto, (2003) described an inquiry group of veteran urban educators (or "stayers") who "have hope and faith in their students, in their own abilities as teachers, in trusted colleagues and new teachers, in the promise of public education and in the profession of teaching" (p. 16).

Support for Novice Teachers

Most first year teachers are trained, certified professionals who have had limited classroom experience, even those who have participated in "field-based" programs. Upon accepting their first teaching positions, however, they are confronted with the same vast away of responsibilities and duties as their veteran colleagues. Understandably, the induction year can be overwhelming for novice teachers as they face new challenges while striving to structure and manage their first classrooms (Raths, 2001). Efforts to support teachers during their induction year may have been varied (Katz, 1993). Wesley (2003) called for veteran teachers to "nurture" novice professionals and to reassure them that they would "weather early storms and soon sail calmer seas" (p. 467). Indeed, induction year efforts have typically been aimed at providing increased consultation and support for new teachers through school-based mentoring programs. Feiman-Nemster (2003) stated that "without the school's explicit endorsement of induction as a shared responsibility and a professional culture that supports collaboration and problem-solving, new teachers may find themselves alone with their questions and problems" (p. 28). Positive effects of peer support have also been explored through studies of innovative programs similar to the online forum provided by the New Teachers' Network, an alumni group from Hofstra University (Hines, Murphy, Singer, & Stacki, 2002). Through this online collegial platform, new teachers were given opportunities to discuss difficult issues such as poverty, natural disasters, and war that influenced their classrooms. These kinds of opportunities for collaborative exchange greatly reduced feelings of helplessness and isolation.

Examples of more formal approaches to supporting efficacy and retention of new teachers include The Novice Teacher Induction Program (NTIP) which is sponsored by the Texas State University System and funded by Houston Endowment. NTIP is a partnership formed by six Texas universities and several local education agencies in an effort to stem teacher attrition. The program involves experienced educators who serve as mentors to novice teachers. The veteran teachers provide collegial support and deliver regular and continuous on-site training during the induction year. New teachers and mentors participate in monthly meetings and workshops, and all participants receive six hours of graduate credit. Early results of NTIP have shown that of 291 novice teachers mentored through the program, 98.6% returned to teaching following the induction year. These participants were drawn from 73 school campuses, and 89% of them returned to the same campus, with 6.7% returning to a different campus with the same district (Texas Center for Educational Research, 2000). When compared to national statistics on attrition rates of first year teachers (Ingersoll, 2001), these NTIP data are notable. While this example and other induction year programs appear to support and sustain new teachers, it is certain that not every novice teacher will have the opportunity for such direct and structured mentorship. Our own data results of a survey of NTIP participants, however, may provide useful information for those who wish to support the success and retention of new teachers in other ways (Wegmann, et al., 2004).

Perceptions of Efficacy as Links to Retention

In a study we designed to identity perceptions regarding induction year experiences, 78 novice teachers from NTIP responded to survey questions regarding some of the external and internal factors that have been associated with teacher retention and attrition (Wegmann, et al., 2004). In one portion of a survey, participants rated the time demands of their duties and certain characteristics of students and school settings using a Likert scale. Results revealed significant areas of mismatch between the teachers' expectations upon entry to their positions and the realities they experienced during the first year. Because 76 of the 78 respondents were among the novices in the larger NTIP group who returned to the classroom after receiving induction year mentorship and support, it would appear these novice teachers were able to deal with challenges resulting from these discrepancies. The extent to which this can be attributed to the NTIP program, or any other single factor, is not shown by this particular survey; however, evidence of certain "internal characteristics" among the respondents and of expressed beliefs that are consistent with teacher efficacy does appear clear.

This group of teachers expressed consistent agreement with survey statements indicating: 1) positive perceptions of their relationships with principals, parents and peers; 2) their own empowerment regarding classroom instruction and decisions; and 3) the supports they received for their current and future professional development. When rating the survey items most directly associated with efficacy dispositions and beliefs, novice teachers expressed strong agreement with the following statements: I make important decisions in my classroom (87%), I am empowered to make instructional decisions in my classroom (85%), My decisions/opinions are valued (71%), My decisions ultimately affect students' learning (82%), and I am able to meet individual instructional needs (74%).

Positive beliefs about teaching and learning were reflected by strong agreement with the survey items stating: The teacher should be accountable for what students learn in the classroom (72%), Children are active, self-directed learners (49%), Children require differentiated instruction due to individual needs, cultures, and interests (82%) and Learning should be fun (92%). Evidence of the teachers' positive perceptions regarding supports for efficacy through mentorship and professional development was determined by their agreement with the following: I can find out any information about teaching that I need (65%), I engage in professional development to inform my teaching (90%), I have access to professional development opportunities that I choose (73%), and My mentor teacher helps me improve my teaching (76%).

A survey of this type provides just a glimpse of perceptions of the novice teachers involved. A more detailed picture gained through interviews with focus groups or with individual teachers would be useful to the interpretation of these data and might provide specific examples that support the opinions expressed. Additionally, research methods that utilize measures such as the ratings and documented observations of objective third party observers might corroborate the opinions expressed by teachers and provide evidence of how closely their perceptions align with the actual events, interactions, and setting conditions that occurred during their first year. (This is, in fact, our plan for future investigation of the teacher retention issue.) However, while the early NTIP retention results and survey data provide only a limited lens, the insights they reveal suggest several implications for educator preparation programs and the school administrators who recruit and supervise entry level teachers.

Teacher Preparation Programs

Many new teachers who leave the profession express frustration and a sense of helplessness or failure when confronting the realities they encounter in their classrooms and school settings. Even so, retention rates were high and survey responses indicated strong perceptions of professional efficacy after one year. While the mentorship provided by NTIP may account for much of this result, the factors associated with evidence of efficacy in this study are elements that might be influenced by educator preparation programs.

Classroom preparation and pre-service field-based experiences of new teachers should address relevant topics beyond classroom instruction and include appropriate focus on matters such as classroom management and discipline, recordkeeping, and time management. Teacher candidates should be exposed to all aspects of the profession and the time demands associated with administrative tasks, assigned extracurricular duties, and participation on campus and district committees.

Finally, novice teachers who enter the field with the necessary dispositions for successful teaching often possess important internal characteristics conducive to longevity in the profession. Therefore, along with the development of teacher competencies, educator preparation programs should support the development of positive beliefs, a sense of commitment, and perceptions of serf-efficacy. Pre-service teachers should experience opportunities for developing skills in problem solving, communicating and collaborating, and reflectively self assessing (Titone, Sherman, & Palmer, 1998). Performance-based assignments and evaluations of authentic field experiences should reflect and promote these priorities.

Supervising Administrators

During their induction years, novices should be supported by systematic mentorship, if possible, and administrative practices that support effective teacher supervision (Feiman-Nemster, 2003), professional development (Adams, 1997; Wong, 2002), and ongoing evaluations and feedback (Darling-Hammond, 2003). First year teachers often have a real desire to improve learning situations through mastery of sound teaching practices and need opportunities to expand their knowledge and skills, thereby strengthening their feelings of confidence and efficacy. Collaboration can appreciate individuality and recognize the expertise of the participants involved (Adams, 1997; Guskey, 2003; Richardson, 2003). With administrative support, first year teachers should have opportunities to observe relevant classroom demonstrations of veteran teachers at work. As novice teachers try new ideas in their classrooms, their implementation of identified interventions should be monitored with supportive feedback provided by colleagues who are knowledgeable about content and instructional practices. Otherwise, as happens all too often with professional development initiatives, efforts lacking peer coaching or supportive follow up may not succeed (Guskey, 2003; Sanborn, 2002).

Finally, those who supervise and evaluate novice teachers can promote efficacy by assisting them in conducting self-assessments. Effective evaluation conferences should prompt novices to apply solutions to problems that enable them to set and achieve professional goals. In these ways, supervisors can promote competency and efficacy of new teachers and increase their success and likelihood of retention.

Recommendations

In sum, teacher preparation programs should consider providing opportunities for students to experience authentic problem-solving in relation to the following issues:

1. classroom management and discipline

2. recordkeeping

3. time management (particularly concerning administrative tasks and extracurricular duties)

4. dispositional issues, especially opportunities for developing skills in communicating and collaborating, problem solving, and reflectively self assessing.

We recommend that supervising administrators should consider providing novice teacher opportunities for the following:

1. observation in veteran classrooms

2. collaboration with others across campus

3. supportive feedback from peers/others

4. self-assessment

Conclusion

We believe the novice teachers we surveyed showed efficacious behavior. According to our survey results, these teachers believed they had the power to produce desired effects in their classrooms and in their schools. Their willingness to stay in the classroom the subsequent year was a significant indicator of this efficacy. Nonetheless, they voiced concerns over areas of mismatch between what they expected and what actually occurred in their first year of teaching. To help resolve these potentially overwhelming discrepancies, both teacher preparation programs and supervising administrators might learn from the struggles of these novice teachers and might help under gird future novice teachers' sense of efficacy.

References

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Susan Wegmann, Sam Houston State University, TX

Paula Adams, Sam Houston State University, TX

Betty Higgins, Sam Houston State University, TX

Melinda Miller, Sam Houston State University, TX

Debra Price, Sam Houston State University, TX

Cindy Simpson, Sam Houston State University, TX

Phil Swicegood, Sam Houston State University, TX

All authors are in the department of Language, Literacy, and Special Populations and teach in teacher preparation and various graduate studies programs representing specialization areas of Reading, Special Education, and Early Childhood Education. This article is one product of an on-going writing group who is currently studying, among other things, teacher retention and attrition.