Teacher perceptions and expectations of school counselor contributions: implications for program planning and training.

The researchers examined the perceptions of 23 teachers in elementary, middle, and high schools regarding necessary counseling and guidance services, how these services might best be delivered, and teachers' expectations about school counselor contributions and working relationships. The researchers also examined the resulting reflections of the graduate student interviewers regarding their future work as professional school counselors. Implications for training and practice are discussed.

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The role of the school counselor has long been debated within the field, and various models and means of accountability have been presented, tried, and evaluated over the past several decades. Comprehensive counseling and guidance programs that incorporate academic, career development, and social/emotional domains have been described in the professional literature for many years (Gysbers & Henderson, 2000; Myrick, 2003). School administrators, teachers, and parents often may view the counselor's role from their own perspectives (Burnham & Jackson, 2000). There has been a recent shift in emphasis to the perception of the school counselor as an educational leader, student advocate, and social change agent (Clark & Stone, 2000; House & Martin, 1998; Stone & Clark, 2001). This leadership role entails increased collaborative interventions with those people who are significant in the lives of students (Cooper & Sheffield, 1994).

In the vast majority of states, there has been an increased emphasis on high academic achievement for all students. Statewide competency-based testing results have become an increasingly high priority in our K-12 schools. The No Child Left Behind Act (2001) has established new math and reading testing requirements and has authorized funds for states to develop, select, and design their own tests (National Association of Secondary School Principals, 2002). Much pressure has been placed on students and educators at all levels to raise academic standards, with regard to achievement test scores as well as increased credit and more rigorous coursework requirements for graduation from high school (Quaglia, 2000). And, the "achievement gap" between minority and majority students as demonstrated by test scores and high school and college graduation rates is contributing to the call for higher academic standards and accountability measures for all students (Isaacs, 2003).

The development of the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) National Standards (Campbell & Dahir, 1997) and the ASCA National Model: A Framework for School Counseling Programs (ASCA, 2003a) has provided the impetus and rationale for establishing the school counseling program as an integral component of the mission of each school. The ASCA National Standards and the National Model help the profession address questions about our role as school counselors, how we fit into the overall mission of the school, and how we contribute to academic achievement of students (Schwallie-Giddis, ter Maat, & Pak, 2003). The four domains included in the National Model--foundation, delivery system, management system, and accountability--make up a comprehensive model for effective service delivery.

Experts agree that establishing meaningful connections between teachers and students in the class rooms, as well as among the students themselves, is essential for the mission of education to be successful (Dodd, 2000; Mulgan, 1996). Many educators assert that too much instructional time is taken up with classroom management issues including the lack of positive communication between teacher and student(s) (Dodd). The educators are recognizing that when schools attend to students' social and emotional skills, the academic achievement of children increases, the incidence of problem behaviors decreases, and the quality of the relationships surrounding each child improves (Cummings & Haverty, 1997; Elias et al., 1997; Pasi, 2001).

There is very little written in the professional literature about the perceptions or contributions of teachers toward influencing the counseling programs in their schools. Yet, teachers are the people who are with the students for the majority of their school day and they are basically held responsible for the teaching and learning that take place in the school. Furthermore, public schools have mirrored the social transformations of the modern era resulting in an expansion of the teacher's role regarding inclusion, socialization, and multiculturalism (Elkind, 2000). Teachers in today's schools often are facing a population of students whose personal and social problems create barriers to academic success (Bemak, 2000; Keys & Bemak, 1997). The influence and expectations of principals, their understanding of the role of the school counselor, as well as their understanding of program development and implementation have been identified as significant factors affecting the development of exemplary school guidance and counseling programs (Ponec & Brock, 2000; Vaught, 1995) and as aspects of school counselor efficacy (Sutton & Fall, 1995). Teachers have not been specifically mentioned in the literature as being a part of this support, yet teachers' expectations of counselors and their knowledge of counselor performance can have great impact on students, parents, and administrators and therefore on counseling programs (Valine, Higgins, & Hatcher, 1982).

A major role of the school counselor has been that of teacher consultation to help students achieve in school (Gysbers & Henderson, 2000; Myrick, 2003). With the increased emphasis on academic achievement apparent in our nation's schools today, it is clear that collaboration with teachers is essential to provide the best services for students with regard to their academic, career development, and social/ emotional needs (Bemak, 2000).

PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY

This study examines the perceptions and preferences of teachers in elementary, middle, and high schools regarding the types of necessary counseling and guidance services, how they might best be delivered, and their expectations about school counselor contributions and working with counselors. This article also examines reflections on interviews by graduate student interviewers regarding their future work as school counselors. In this study, we address three questions:

1. What do classroom teachers perceive to be the counseling and guidance :needs of their school and how might these needs be addressed by the school counselor(s)?

2. What types of services do teachers perceive that school counselors engage in and what activities would they like them to engage in?

3. What do teachers report as helpful strategies that counselors might use to deliver such services?

METHOD

Because the focus of the study was on the meanings and perspectives of individuals within a specific social context, a descriptive qualitative grounded theory design was used (Glaser, 1976; Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Grounded theory is a qualitative methodology based on symbolic interactionism (Blumer, 1967). Symbolic interactionist theory asserts that people construct meanings for phenomena based on their interpretations of interactions they have with one another. Grounded theory provides the methods for conducting research based on this perspective. An inherent assumption of symbolic interactionism and grounded theory is that "reality" is susceptible to different interpretations based on socially constructed meanings. Because "reality" is viewed as being individually and socially constructed, there are an infinite number of constructions that might be made, thereby producing multiple individual and social meanings.

Grounded theorists base their research on the assumption that individuals and groups share certain social circumstances, and that from those shared circumstances meanings are generated. It is the role of the grounded theory investigator to explore and attempt to see the world from the point of view of the respondents, to articulate their meanings to make sense out of their social experience, and to develop a theoretical understanding of the processes involved in their experience. Therefore, consistent with methodological and epistemological assumptions of symbolic interactionism and grounded theory, study samples are purposive, chosen to reflect the fullness of experience from the perspective of the individual, and no attempt is made to seek representativeness. Findings based on these data are not generalizable but are offered as an in-depth description of an experience so that different possible insights, theoretical ideas, and change strategies can be generated. From this initial work, it is anticipated that additional discovery and testing of the concepts and processes will be continued in future studies.

The unit of study in this investigation was the individual teacher. The research design consisted of focused qualitative interviews. The data were first analyzed using the constant comparative method based on the analysis of the differences and similarities between the data. As a second step, a theoretical scheme was developed through the process of relating conceptual categories to each other.

Sample Selection

As is consistent with grounded theory methodology, study participants were selected based on their ability and interest in explicating their experience in working with school counselors and articulating their expectations about the counselor's role and contributions within the school. Rather than seek equal representation across grade levels and content areas, we selected teachers who had significant experience working with school counselors. Therefore, the initial sample was purposive and voluntary. Teachers were recruited through personal contact by their interviewees based on the following criteria: (a) had worked as a teacher in either a public elementary, middle, or high school for at least two years; (b) had worked in a school employing at least one school counselor on a full time basis; and (c) was willing to participate in an individual interview 30-45 minutes in duration.

Prior to participant recruitment, the research protocol was approved by the institutional review board (IRB) at our university, a large, state-funded university in the Southeastern region of the United States. After attaining approval from the IRB, we approached individual teachers and invited them to participate, we described the project, and we distributed a letter of informed consent and a copy of the interview protocol. Individuals who agreed to participate signed the consent form and scheduled an interview with one of the research interviewers.

Participants

Participants in the study were 23 teachers employed by various schools within three diverse school districts in the Southeastern United States. Twelve of the teachers taught at the elementary school level, 6 at the middle school level, and 6 at the high school level. Eleven of the interviewees had between 2 and 9 years of teaching experience, 7 had between 10 and 19 years of experience, and 5 had 20 years or more. Several of the interviewees had been in different career fields prior to teaching. A number of them had previous teaching experience at schools other than their current assignment. The teachers were employed in schools that ranged in size, and with a diversity of student population regarding socioeconomic status and race/ethnicity. Some schools were rural, some were suburban, and some were urban, providing a sample that represented a range of teacher opinions. In pooling these data, we lose the focus of an individual school context, but we gain a broader range of teachers' perspectives regarding counselor roles and contributions.

Data Collection

Data were gathered in individual interviews conducted by graduate students enrolled in a 72-graduate-credit-hour Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs Counselor Education program in the College of Education at our university. They were participating in a capstone course taken the semester before graduation entitled "Organization and Administration of Guidance and Personnel Programs." The interviewers were given instructions about the interview format and questions as well as the informed consent procedure.

Questions asked during the interviews are listed in the appendix. The interview protocol included background data, perceptions of school life and challenges in teaching, expectations concerning counseling and guidance services, and teacher-counselor relationships. Interviewees were given an opportunity to ask questions of the interviewer. A typical interview was expected to last about 48 minutes, but if the participants indicated that they wanted to spend more time with the interviewer, the interview was extended. All interviews were conducted in private and confidentiality, was ensured. All identifiable data on a respondent were screened from the interview report to protect his or her identity. The interviewer took notes and compiled them into a written interview summary. This report then was sent to the respondent for review and approval so as to corroborate the content of the report. All changes recommended by the participants then were made in the interview reports. According to Lincoln and Guba (1985), this form of member checking is essential to establish the credibility of the research findings.

The interviewers also wrote a reflection paper that was handed in to the course instructor. They were asked to reflect on the themes they discovered about their interviewee's perceptions of the roles and relationships of school counselors. The student interviewers were to think about how their own perspectives changed as a result of conducting the interview and what they hoped to incorporate into their personal vision for building positive teacher-counselor relationships as a result. It was hoped that the students would gain insights into teacher perceptions of counseling and guidance programs that would motivate them to establish positive and collaborative relationships with teachers when they entered the field as professional school counselors.

Analysis

We transcribed and analyzed the interview notes using constant comparative analysis (Glaser, 1976; Glaser & Strauss, 1967). In following this procedure, we first analyzed and coded the interview data to generate conceptual categories regarding teacher role expectations for counselors. Then, as a second step, we analyzed the text of each interview to determine how well the conceptual categories generated fit each teacher's description of the work of counselors. For example, communication and collaboration emerged as a common way and need in which teachers expected to interact with counselors. Once this category was identified, we went back through the data to determine how centrally this category described individual participants' expectations.

The scientific rigor of qualitative research is assessed through the application of procedures for establishing the credibility, dependability, transferability, and confirmability of the study findings. In this study, credibility, or the truthfulness of the findings, was achieved through using the technique of persistent observation and member checks. That is, we conducted interviews across the 23 teachers, and we presented them with the interview text and the analysis of the data for their review, confirmation, and revision.

Dependability refers to the reliability, predictability, and consistency of the findings, whereas confirmability relates to whether the judgments made concerning the findings of a study are reflective of the participants' experiences rather than the researcher's bias. Dependability and confirmability of the findings were established through the use of triangulation and an inquiry audit (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Triangulation was achieved via the review and analysis of the data by both researchers. Each read and analyzed each interview summary and identified emergent themes independently. Meetings provided an opportunity to reach a consensus concerning the language that was most appropriate to communicate those themes to the readership. The themes are reported in the Results section.

The inquiry audit consisted of an outside expert, a school counseling professional, who reviewed the analysis process and resulting themes to ensure that conceptual decisions stayed true to the data and were not based on researcher bias or nonreflective, a priori theory (Janesick, 2000). Study findings are presented as one possible account of teachers' experience with and expectations of school counselors and should be considered emergent and tentative (Glaser, 1976). Transferability of the findings of this study to other settings must ultimately be determined by the reader. However, a rich description of themes describing teachers' expectations enables the reader to determine the relevance and applicability of these findings to individual :settings. Because limited research exists on how teachers expect to interact with school counselors, attempting to understand their perspective may help pre-service and in-service school counselors understand teachers' concerns and expectations.

RESULTS

We analyzed the data from the interviews and reflection papers and noted several major themes that emerged for the group of teachers and for the student interviewers. The reports based on the interviews were used to analyze teacher perceptions and the reflection papers were used to analyze student interviewer perceptions and lessons learned from the interview experience.

Teacher Perceptions of School Counselors

Communication and collaboration. The theme that emerged most frequently discussed by the teachers was that of counselor-teacher communication, collaboration, and teamwork. Thirteen of the 23 teachers interviewed talked about the importance of good communication and working together with counselors as a team. A number of them mentioned taking a developmental, proactive, and preventive approach with guidance and counseling services. They thought that having a strong relationship among the teachers, counselor(s), and administrators was essential to an effective school. The word "teamwork" was mentioned often, along with comments about collaboration of teachers and counselors to help students. Teachers can identify student issues, and counselors can take the information and follow through with services, including creating interventions in the classroom. Several teachers mentioned the importance of counselor support for classroom instruction and environment as well as counselor validation of teachers. A number of the teachers suggested team meetings to keep lines of communication open.

Valuing of direct services to students. Another major theme that emerged from teachers was the importance of both small group counseling and classroom guidance sessions. Eight of the 23 teachers discussed the importance of small-group work with students and an additional 8 also mentioned the significance of large-group guidance. Specific needs were voiced for small groups in which students could develop life skills, social relationships, peer mediation, peer facilitation, and family issues that may be affecting academic performance. Teachers expressed the need for counselor support in their classrooms relating to problem solving and decision making, dealing with aggression, accepting of differences, building character education, and helping establish a positive learning environment. They also mentioned that counselors can share specific information relating to educational planning in large groups.

Almost as many teachers brought up the importance of individual counseling; 7 of them discussed the individual attention that counselors give students. Being aware of situations and responding in a timely manner as well as helping out in a crisis were paramount to these teachers. Following up with students who are not achieving up to expectations also was mentioned. Several expressed the wish that counselors had more time for individual work.

Counselor visibility and school-wide involvement. A third major theme that emerged from the teacher interviews, highlighted by 7 teachers across all school levels, was that of counselor visibility and involvement in the total school. One teacher commented, "The counselor should be an integral part of the school team and should be warm and approachable. Visibility with teachers and students is very important. The counselor should not be isolated." They also talked about bridging the gap between home and school and helping teachers understand some of the family situations that may be affecting school performance.

Knowledge about special students' needs. Twelve of the 23 teachers talked about the special needs of students in their schools. Most have been teaching in schools with diverse populations of multicultural backgrounds as well as students who come from homes of lower socioeconomic status. Others discussed students who speak English as a second language and some talked about their students with special education needs. A few teachers mentioned the role of the counselor as a referral agent and a broker of resources. They thought it was important for the school counselor to be able to point to resources for students with special needs and make referrals when necessary, in addition to working with the students and their Families directly.

It is clear that teachers feel their jobs are becoming more complex with an increasing diversity in their students' backgrounds and the expectations that are placed on them to meet the academic and social/emotional needs of their students. Many believe that students do not have the same respect for authority that used to exist and that discipline is an issue for them in the classroom and in schools in general. Teachers perceive that there are numerous family issues affecting students with regard to motivation, completing their homework, and generally coming to school ready to learn. They believe they need assistance from counselors and administrators to help them get the job done.

Interviewer Reflections

Several major themes emerged from the interviewers' accounts of their experiences of talking with the teachers. Some were similar to themes found in the teacher data whereas others were unique to the pre-service counselor interviewers.

Building relationships: Collaboration and teamwork. The theme most frequently brought out in the student interviewer reflection papers was also that of collaboration and teamwork among teachers and school counselors. Eighteen of the 23 interviewers wrote about the importance of collaboration and communication between counselors and teachers. Making personal connections with teachers was seen by many of the interviewers as being extremely important. Working as a team and consulting with staff instead of making unilateral decisions also was noted. As one interviewer commented, "Collaboration and team unity are vital. The staff as a whole needs to be involved with the student, and communication among staff members is essential." Another expressed a similar thought: "It is important to be open and willing to help students and staff: A counselor cannot successfully help students without the help of teachers."

Building a positive relationship with the teachers and understanding their perspectives was mentioned many times by the interviewers. Listening to them and supporting them was seen as a guiding principle. "I will invest time in building a rapport with the faculty. I think I will use the same interview format to learn more about their perspectives. I want to be an integral part of the school team," voiced one. Another had a similar response: "We need to hear the concerns of the teachers; this will be helpful in building a positive and productive relationship." another wrote,

   I will make the effort to try and get to know
   all the teachers in my future school. A little
   friendliness can go a long way in building collaborative
   relationships. Maybe teachers will
   rely on me more if they see me making a concerted
   effort and see that I am willing to go
   the extra mile.

One interviewer expressed the importance of spending time with individual teachers to build a positive relationship. "It's so important to listen to each one and accept their point of view. Counselors need to take the first step in getting to know the teachers."

Counselor visibility. A second major theme that emerged from the interviewers' reflections was that of visibility of the counselor in the school. Ten wrote about the importance of being open and accessible to teachers and students and being a presence in the school, and of visibility being essential to helping children learn who you are and what you stand for as a counselor. As one interviewer commented,

   A great counselor is one who addresses the
   needs of the students and teachers by going
   out into the school and experiencing it as it is.
   For example, being in the classroom, lunchroom,
   and other areas sometimes avoided is a
   good idea. The counselor needs to be visible
   to teachers as well, such as in team meetings.
   She should keep lines of communication open
   between teacher, parents, and students and
   provide an atmosphere that is favorable to all.
   I understand that doing it is harder than saving
   it, but I will have the courage and dedication
   to have a successful guidance program.

Educating teachers. A reoccurring theme throughout the reflections mentioned by 14 of the interviewers was the importance of educating teachers about the role and contributions of the school counselor. Although collaboration and establishing relationships are seen as the foundation to their work in the schools, many of these graduate students felt that teachers needed to know more about what counselors can do specifically with regard to services and interventions with students. "Some teachers do not view the counseling process as that important, or are not knowledgeable about how it can specifically help students to improve their academic experience." Another poignantly commented,

   I never understood that counselors were seen
   as subsidiary to teachers. It bothers me that
   counselors offer so much and go through such
   extensive training to be seen merely as subordinates.
   In my interview, I realized that the
   teacher appreciated counselors for what they
   did but saw them as simply "support staff."

Other graduate students stated the importance of informing staff about what counselors are trying to accomplish with an accompanying rationale. Planning and organization are seen as part of this educational process. An orientation of the role of the school counselor for staff and students was mentioned as a means to inform teachers about the various roles and responsibilities and what each counselor can specifically offer the school and its population.

Classrooms and schools as systems. Seven interviewers mentioned the role of the counselor in helping to establish a positive learning environment and classroom/school climate. Through of the use of cohesion-building activities with classes, they think classroom management can be improved and students would demonstrate respect for one another. They wrote about the systemic aspects of schools and classrooms and how counselors need to help teachers understand the various levels of interactions that take place in a school. Furthermore, they realized that teachers and counselors can have varying perspectives regarding individuals and groups. One student commented,

   Counselors are involved in a social system that
   includes interpersonal interactions with
   administrators, teachers, parents, and students.
   It is necessary for counselors to understand
   these interactions and help teachers to
   understand them as well. Teachers may not be
   aware of the general objectives of a counseling
   program and may not understand the role of
   the counselor as a student advocate. They may
   think counselors are too student-centered and
   that they "coddle" students. On the other
   hand, counselors may perceive that teachers
   are too autocratic and possibly insensitive to
   individual student needs. They really need to
   understand one another's roles and perspectives
   in the school and that there is room
   for both.

DISCUSSION

The teachers who were interviewed represented a diverse cross section of experience, background, and level of school at which they teach, as well as student populations with whom they work. They voiced numerous concerns about their students and their needs and feelings about counselors and their roles. The interview experience appeared to be perceived positively by both the teachers and the graduate student interviewers. A number of major themes were addressed and those themes were found across school levels. That is, we did not find differences among the categories of concerns and counselor expectations by teachers from elementary to middle to high school levels.

The theme that was mentioned most frequently for both groups was that of the value of staff collaboration, communication, and teamwork. It is significant to note that both the teachers and the counselor education students commented on these issues independently of one another. Teachers and pre-service counselors commented on the need to work together for the good of their students. This theme ties in very well with the philosophy of the ASCA National Standards (Campbell & Dahir, 1997) and the National Model (ASCA, 2003a), particularly with regard to the delivery system component. As Bowers, Hatch, & Schwallie-Giddis (2001) wrote, "Counselors need the inner strength to step up to work with teachers to improve student achievement and to demonstrate that what they do is connected to student learning" (p. 18). The No Child Left Behind Act (2001) legislation mandates all federally funded programs be accountable for and directly connected to student learning and student improvement (Hatch & Bowers, 2002). Thus, legislation as well as the National Standards and National Model offer a rationale and support base for the principle of teachers and counselors working as a team.

A second major theme mentioned by the teachers was the importance of small group and large-group guidance and counseling interventions. To a slightly lesser extent they also expressed the need for individual work with students by counselors, though they recognized the time constraints involved. This theme relates to the National Model (ASCA, 2003a) recommendation that 80% of school counselors' time be spent in direct service to all students so that every student receives the program benefits. The graduate student interviewers did not reflect on specific counseling interventions they would use. Rather, they focused on relationship issues and establishing their roles within the school setting.

Both the teachers and the interviewers emphasized the importance of counselor visibility and involvement in the total school. When counselors are seen as part of a viable team that is essential to the overall school program, they will be accessed by students more readily. It is essential for school counselors and comprehensive counseling programs to be integrated into the day-to-day operation of the school and community (Radd, 2001).

A number of teachers and student interviewers perceived that a substantial part of the role of the counselor is to support teachers in their classrooms in helping students to achieve their best work and in maintaining a positive classroom environment. The increased emphasis on academic achievement and development of high aspirations for all students is a theme that is being stressed through legislation, school reform efforts (Bemak, 2000; House & Martin, 1998; Stone & Clark, 2001), and the National Model (ASCA, 2003a).

It was interesting to note that only 2 of the 23 teachers mentioned the importance of counselors performing administrative tasks such as scheduling and testing. Although these tasks are carried out by many counselors and may take up a disproportionate amount of their time, such functions are not perceived by the majority of the group of teachers in this study as being important to the counselors' mission in the school. This is a significant point to address as the ASCA National Model is implemented throughout districts, states, and the nation. The executive summary of the National Model (ASCA, 2003b) states, "Although school counselors are team players who understand fair-share responsibilities within a school system, they cannot be fully effective when taken away from essential counseling tasks to perform non-counseling activities such as scheduling, testing, classroom coverage, discipline, and clerical responsibilities" (pp. 3-4). Having teacher perception data could be useful in supporting this recommendation from the National Model in school districts.

Using teacher data to plan a school and district-level guidance and counseling program is a powerful way to involve teachers in the plan and as a support system to the program. Teachers in this study are saying that collaboration with counselors is important and they need counselor support. The next step in forging strong bonds among teachers and counselors is to include teachers in the planning and implementing of the school counseling program. Having teacher representation by grade level or department on a guidance and counseling advisory committee would be one way to ensure their input and involvement.

Counselor education programs should encourage and build in early contact and communication with teachers for their graduate students. It is a good experience in itself as well as in setting the stage for future relationships. Counselors-in-training can seek out teacher perspectives and open up dialogues about what each can offer the other to help students achieve at the optimal level. Such contact also can help pre-service counselors see the value of program organization and implementation as well as what teachers can offer to the guidance and counseling program. Such communication can help counselors-in-training see the whole picture of a school as an organization rather than only involving themselves with individual student issues. Interdisciplinary projects, seminars, and internship assignments that establish models for collaborative work can provide a base for future professional cooperation (Bemak, 2000).

Student interviewers reflected the need for educating teachers about the roles of school counselors and how they can enhance student performance in school. An implication for the training of counselors is the issue of accountability. Counselors need to be able to not only talk about their roles, but also about how they can help students develop optimally in the academic, social/emotional, and career arenas. They need to be able to address the question, "How are students different as a result of what we do?" (Hatch & Bowers, 2002, pp. 14-15). Counselor educators and guidance supervisors need to stress the accountability component of the National Model (ASCA, 2003a). It is essential for counselors to be able to design interventions, collect data, and use results to meet the needs of all students. Furthermore, counselors can teach the same principles to teachers, helping them to collect and to disaggregate data to improve the academic achievement of students in their classrooms and to further academic opportunities beyond their classrooms (Stone & Clark, 2001).

CONCLUSION

Little research exists on teachers' perceptions about counselors' roles and contributions and their expectations of school guidance and counseling programs. Administrators and counselors tend to have a more holistic view of the school and its organization whereas teachers tend to focus on their classrooms and individual students. Because teachers spend their time in direct contact with students, they often will be the first to notice academic and social/emotional concerns that can affect student performance and efficacy. It is essential that counselors and teachers establish and maintain collaborative relationships with each other to help students be the best they can be in their educational achievement as well as in their citizenship and character development. Data from this study support the perceived importance of such collaborative relationships on both the part of teachers as well as pre-service counselors. Moreover, the data can lend support for the ASCA National Model implementation as counselors involve their staffs in their school counseling programs.

Counselor educators can teach and model collaboration and interdisciplinary cooperation through coursework, projects, and individual and group supervision with their students as well as work with other stakeholders outside their departments. For example, planning seminars with pre-service counselors, teachers, administrators, and school psychologists would offer each group an opportunity to share their perspectives as well as their growing areas of expertise. Each has something special to offer the others. They can offer unique perspectives on such issues and skills as communication with others, student appraisal and use of data, student advocacy, and classroom management. Pre-service educators can work together during their training, setting the stage for collaborative relationships in their future professional work. Teaching and practicing systems theory to counselors-in-training is another way to help them view the school and its various components as part of a larger system--one that they can influence in a variety of ways, including collaboration, leadership, and advocacy for students. Recent legislation and the publication of the ASCA National Model can provide a foundation and rationale for such interdisciplinary collaboration with the common goal of helping all students be the best they can be.

APPENDIX

Interview Protocol

Background Data

1. How long have you served as a teacher at this school? Have you taught other grades/subjects? In what area(s) did you earn your degree(s)?

2. What is the size of the school in terms of number of facility and student enrollment?

3. What is the demographic composition of the students at your school (e.g., socioeconomic status, proportion of special needs students, ethnic composition, geographic representation in the school district, and rate of mobility)?

Perceptions of School Life and Expectations Concerning School Counselor Roles and Contributions

1. What do you see as the most significant challenges facing your school? What are the types of problems that seem to keep coming up frequently with your students?

2. How do you think your school counselor should contribute to addressing the needs of your students? What particular types of skills and interventions does your school counselor have for helping you to address these challenges?

3. What services does the school counselor(s) perform in your school (e.g., for students, teachers, administrators, parents)? Which should be given greatest priority in your opinion?

4. There are many different ways in which counselors interact with teachers and administrators to improve the life of the school and the kinds of services provided to students. In what ways has your school counselor worked with you and influenced you and your students' lives?

5. What suggestions would you have for school counselors in training regarding their work role expectations and contributions to a school program?

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Mary Ann Clark, Ph.D., NCC, is an assistant professor and

Ellen Amatea, Ph.D., is a professor, both with the Department of Counselor Education at the University of Florida, Gainesville. E-mail: [e-mail]