Teacher assessment of homework.Abstract This study examined the perceptions of 247 teachers about potential helpful and harmful effects of homework on the students. In addition, they were asked to respond to eight questions about the efficacy of their homework assignments. Results indicated that teachers in this study had beliefs about the benefits of homework that were consistent with the literature, namely, that homework helped their students through reinforcement reinforcement /re·in·force·ment/ (-in-fors´ment) in behavioral science, the presentation of a stimulus following a response that increases the frequency of subsequent responses, whether positive to desirable events, or and review. They also expressed concern that homework might lead to frustrations, stress, lack of family time, and reduced time to play and experience life as a child. Finally, every teacher responded that they and their schools had never undertaken a study to determine the efficacy of homework. Introduction Homework is an inevitable part of every student's life from September through June. It is assigned for a number of reasons ranging from reinforcement and practice to developing character and skills (Cooper, 1989). It is often used as a factor in determining grades at the end of each academic term and it is considered a basic part of education in general (Kralovec and Buell, 2000). As Roderique et al., (1994) note, homework's importance is attested at·test v. at·test·ed, at·test·ing, at·tests v.tr. 1. To affirm to be correct, true, or genuine: The date of the painting was attested by the appraiser. 2. to in that school districts have policies regulating everything from how much time per grade-level should be allotted al·lot tr.v. al·lot·ted, al·lot·ting, al·lots 1. To parcel out; distribute or apportion: allotting land to homesteaders; allot blame. 2. , how to involve parents, and when and where homework should take place. In addition, as every teacher knows, if homework is not assigned parents will quickly and strongly insist that it be given. Homework is such a part of the education culture, that it is synonymous with synonymous with adjective equivalent to, the same as, identical to, similar to, identified with, equal to, tantamount to, interchangeable with, one and the same as the very word schooling. Even though homework is strongly advocated by school boards and professional educational organizations, it is not without its critics, both public and professional. At the public level, there have been scores of editorials, cover stories, and articles in popular magazines such as, The Los Angeles Times Los Angeles Times Morning daily newspaper. Established in 1881, it was purchased and incorporated in 1884 by Harrison Gray Otis (1837–1917) under The Times-Mirror Co. (the hyphen was later dropped from the name). , The New York New York, state, United States New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of Times, Newsweek, New York Daffy News, Time Magazine, U.S. News and World Report, and The Washington Post. Within the professional world of educational researchers and policy analysts, there have also been serious concerns about the efficacy of homework (see Cooper, 1989, 1994; Epstein and Pinkow, 1988; Gill & Schlossman, 1996; and, Kralovec & Buell, 2000). Teacher, parent, and student opinions about homework abound (Roderique, et al., 1994) however, solid evidence that homework is more or less beneficial for specific populations of students, at specific grade levels, for various subjects, and with different types of homework, is not altogether conclusive Determinative; beyond dispute or question. That which is conclusive is manifest, clear, or obvious. It is a legal inference made so peremptorily that it cannot be overthrown or contradicted. (Check & Ziebell, 1980; Cooper, 1989; Epstein, Polloway, Foley fo·ley n. 1. A technical process by which sounds are created or altered for use in a film, video, or other electronically produced work. 2. A person who creates or alters sounds using this process. , & Patton, 1992; Firth firth or frith, Scottish term applied to an arm of the sea, usually an estuary or strait. For Firth of Clyde, see Clyde; for Firth of Forth, see Forth. , 1991; Heller, Spooner Spooner is an English surname of Anglo-Saxon origin, and may represent people as well as certain places : People
Although there is widespread belief by parents and educators alike that homework is beneficial, it is, and has been the source of constant criticism throughout the past hundred years (Kralovec and Buell, 2000). Historically, one of the first to publicly challenge the homework mystique mys·tique n. An aura of heightened value, interest, or meaning surrounding something, arising from attitudes and beliefs that impute special power or mystery to it: the cowboy mystique; the mystique of existentialism. was Edward Bok, Editor of The Ladies Home Journal (1900), who brought criticism of homework into the popular arena by attacking it as an invasion of family time and for being unsupervised and left to the whims of unqualified parents. Burnham (1905), later admonished schools for denying children their right for leisure activities and play. He also declared that the value of homework should be based on data not simply opinions and that differential benefits would depend on the different academic subjects being considered as well as student grade level. In every decade since the early 1900s there have been critics who have attacked and challenged schools for their homework practices and policies. Stitt (1916) warned about the abuses of excessive homework and its ill effects on health and vitality of students as well as the rack of teacher evaluation of homework, while others railed against a lack of professional supervision (Hall & Quest, 1924; Ross & Klise, 1927; and, Yoakam, 1929). Progressive educators in the 1920s and 1930s, (i.e., John Dewey and Edward Thorndike Edward Lee Thorndike (August 31, 1874 - August 9, 1949) was an American psychologist who spent nearly his entire career at Teachers College, Columbia University. His work on animal behavior and the learning process led to the theory of connectionism and helped lay the scientific ), criticized homework as going against the student-centered orientation of the modern curriculum, whereas, Wheeler (1943) insisted that homework should be addressed to the abilities of each student. It wasn't until the Russian space achievements of Sputnik Sputnik: see satellite, artificial; space exploration. Sputnik Any of a series of Earth-orbiting spacecraft whose launching by the Soviet Union inaugurated the space age. in 1957 that attitudes about the importance of academic achievement, and subsequently homework, were again brought into national focus. Further emphasis on homework also occurred with Coleman's Equality of Educational Opportunity (1968), and again with A Nation at Risk (1983). Current scholars, such as, Cooper, (1989) and, Walberg, et al., (1985), contend that homework is related to academic achievement and it is important in our educational system. However, even Cooper notes that "There is no evidence that any amount of homework improves the academic performance of elementary-school students" (p. 89). In addition, he states that much of the data in various reports about homework is highly contradictory. Thus, whether the support for homework or the arguments against homework prevail, there will always be a need for on-going research and assessment of homework practices across the continuum of schooling. Statement of the Problem In this age of standards-driven curriculum, it is difficult to imagine that something as critical as homework could remain free from the scrutiny of assessment, evaluation and accountability. If the efficacy of homework is to be determined teachers need to collect data for purposes of formative formative /for·ma·tive/ (for´mah-tiv) concerned in the origination and development of an organism, part, or tissue. and summative Adj. 1. summative - of or relating to a summation or produced by summation summational additive - characterized or produced by addition; "an additive process" evaluation. Statement of the Purpose This investigation sought to examine the extent to which teachers were aware of the purposes of homework as well as whether, and to what extent, they have ever conducted any research investigation into the efficacy of their own homework. In addition, it sought to assess whether or not schools and/or districts conduct efficacy studies of homework. Instrument A homework efficacy questionnaire was developed and field-tested on a group of graduate level teacher-education students. Revisions were made and a final questionnaire consisting of two open-ended statements, eight yes-no questions Noun 1. yes-no question - a question that can be answered by yes or no interrogation, interrogative, interrogative sentence, question - a sentence of inquiry that asks for a reply; "he asked a direct question"; "he had trouble phrasing his interrogations" , and a demographics The attributes of people in a particular geographic area. Used for marketing purposes, population, ethnic origins, religion, spoken language, income and age range are examples of demographic data. section was utilized (see statements and questions in the results section, below). Sample The sample consisted of 247 full time teachers of which 153 were parents of children enrolled in, or who had graduated from, school. There were 216 females, 31 males, 168 teachers at the kindergarten kindergarten [Ger.,=garden of children], system of preschool education. Friedrich Froebel designed (1837) the kindergarten to provide an educational situation less formal than that of the elementary school but one in which children's creative play instincts would be to sixth grade level, 79 secondary level teachers, 81 special education teachers, and 166 general education teachers. Procedures The questionnaires were distributed to graduate students enrolled in a Master's Degree master's degree n. An academic degree conferred by a college or university upon those who complete at least one year of prescribed study beyond the bachelor's degree. Noun 1. program in education. Each participant was asked to take the questionnaires back to their schools of employment and distribute them to their peers, review the instructions, and collect the data during a faculty meeting. Data Analyses The two open-ended statements were analyzed an·a·lyze tr.v. an·a·lyzed, an·a·lyz·ing, an·a·lyz·es 1. To examine methodically by separating into parts and studying their interrelations. 2. Chemistry To make a chemical analysis of. 3. with qualitative cluster analysis Cluster analysis A statistical technique that identifies clusters of stocks whose returns are highly correlated within each cluster and relatively uncorrelated across clusters. Cluster analysis has identified groupings such as growth, cyclical, stable, and energy stocks. and a Spearman's Rank Order Correlation. The eight dichotomous di·chot·o·mous adj. 1. Divided or dividing into two parts or classifications. 2. Characterized by dichotomy. di·chot (yes-no) questions were analyzed by frequency counts (see results below). Qualitative Data Analyses Nine graduate students divided into three independent review teams with three members per team were asked to cluster the responses to the following two open-ended statements: "List three to five ways that homework helpful to your students?" and "List three to five ways that homework is harmful to your students?" Since all nine members of the review teams were full-time teachers enrolled in a graduate education Master's Degree program, they were familiar with homework terminology and issues. With the use of Excel spreadsheets each group was able to enter and sort the responses based on the independent variables of gender, teaching assignment, grade level taught, and parent status. Review Process. Each team member performed an individual sorting of the data into self-determined clusters. Each team of three once-again reviewed the responses and arrived at a consensus of the sorting and use of terminology. All nine members performed one more review and arrived at a final consensus of the sorting and the cluster terminology. The clusters were then sorted and ranked by independent variables. Quantitative Data Analyses A Spearman's Rank Order Correlation between males vs. females, special education vs. general education teachers, elementary vs. secondary level teachers, and parents vs. non parents was performed. Results The clusters for the responses to each of the first two open-ended statements are listed below: Statement #1. List three to five ways that homework is helpful to your students. Eight hundred and fifty-four responses were given by the 247 teachers completing the survey. Of these, the following is a rank-order breakdown of the categories and their frequencies. 1. Reinforcement (n = 239 - 28%). The number one reason given for homework being viewed as a help to students was that it served to reinforce learning. 2. Review & Practice (n = 179 - 21%). Homework was also seen as the best way to have children review and practice important information. 3. Responsibility (n = 120 - 14%). One hundred and twenty responses listed homework as a way to encourage and develop responsibility. 4. Skill Development (n = 113 - 13%). Skill development, such as organization, time management, perseverance Perseverance See also Determination. Ainsworth redid dictionary manuscript burnt in fire. [Br. Hist.: Brewer Handbook, 752] Call of the Wild, The dogs trail steadfastly through Alaska’s tundra. [Am. Lit. , and task completion were also listed in the top five ways that homework helps children. 5. Parent Time (n = 86 - 10%). Homework was seen as an important vehicle bringing parents together with their children. 6. Reduce Television Time (n = 59 - 7%). Seven percent of the responses were directed at reducing the amount of time that students spend watching television. 7. Miscellaneous Responses (n = 58 - 7%). The remaining 58 responses were so diverse and unique that they were categorized cat·e·go·rize tr.v. cat·e·go·rized, cat·e·go·riz·ing, cat·e·go·riz·es To put into a category or categories; classify. cat as "Miscellaneous Answers." Within this category, homework was viewed as beneficial for a number of unique reasons, such as: to develop an appreciation and love of reading, to enhance positive attitudes toward school, to show-off to parents, to let kids know that schooling is important, to develop creative expression, to allow for individual research opportunities. All but eight of the teachers listed reinforcement as one of the reasons that homework was helpful to students. Moreover, when both reinforcement and review & practice are considered, they account for 49% of all the responses offered. Hence, it can be safely concluded that teachers believe in the power of homework as a reinforcing agent and an excellent form of review and practice. Although both categories appear similar, most of the teachers listed both, reinforcement and review and practice on their surveys, hence, they were categorized and tallied separately. Spearman spear·man n. A man, especially a soldier, armed with a spear. Rank Order correlation analyses by gender (male vs. female), grade level taught (k-6 vs. 7-12), parent status (children in school vs. no children in school), and teaching assignment (special education teacher vs. general education teacher) failed to evidence any statistically significant differences (p < .05). Statement #2. List three to five ways that homework is harmful to your students. The responses to this statement amounted to 561 harmful effects of homework as listed in the rank order below. 1. Frustration (n = 173 - 31%). The category of frustration included such terms as hopelessness hopelessness Psychology Bleak expectations, usually about oneself or one's future. See Depression. , futility Futility See also Despair, Frustration. American Scene, The portrays Americans as having secured necessities; now looking for amenities. [Am. Lit.: The American Scene] Babio performs the useless and supererogatory. [Fr. , and despair. This category was more heavily weighted by the special education teachers who responded and who indicated frustration at a 59% level when data were analyzed by teacher assignment. 2. Stress (n = 103 - 18%). Stress was listed as the second leading indicator Leading Indicator A measurable economic factor that changes before the economy starts to follow a particular pattern or trend. Leading indicators are used to predict changes in the economy, but are not always accurate. of harmful effects of homework, accounting for 18% of the notations. Again, this category was influenced by the special education teachers more than non-special education teachers, however, it was indicated by all respondents In the context of marketing research, a representative sample drawn from a larger population of people from whom information is collected and used to develop or confirm marketing strategy. as the second most harmful aspect of homework. 3. Lack of Family Time (n = 83 - 15%). Lack of family time was listed as no time to be a family, family separation, and even family stress, which was carefully measured against the category of stress. In many cases, a respondent In Equity practice, the party who answers a bill or other proceeding in equity. The party against whom an appeal or motion, an application for a court order, is instituted and who is required to answer in order to protect his or her interests. listed family stress and stress as separate aspects of harm, hence, in those situations it was counted as a family time issue since it was also being considered as a stressor as well. 4. No Play Time (n = 58 - 10%). Playtime was more heavily indicated on teachers at the K-6 level for obvious reasons of their being a need to play in childhood. However, it was also seen as important at the secondary level as well. 5. Too Much Work (n = 48 - 9%). The 9% who indicated that homework was simply too much work were also predominantly pre·dom·i·nant adj. 1. Having greatest ascendancy, importance, influence, authority, or force. See Synonyms at dominant. 2. teachers of special needs students. 6. Parent Problems (n = 37 - 7%). Parent problems was usually noted as a result of parents not being able to help with homework and assignments being the cause of problems with their children, thus, it was seen as being harmful. 7. Lower Grades For Non-Completion (n = 21 - 4%). This final category was also noted by commentary indicating that many special needs students who could not complete homework would be punished pun·ish v. pun·ished, pun·ish·ing, pun·ish·es v.tr. 1. To subject to a penalty for an offense, sin, or fault. 2. To inflict a penalty for (an offense). 3. by receiving a lower grade because of poor homework. 8. Miscellaneous Responses (n= 38 - 6%). The miscellaneous categories varied and included such issues as health issues, causing emotional problems, interfering with aider-school jobs and household chores, getting in the way of socialization socialization /so·cial·iza·tion/ (so?shal-i-za´shun) the process by which society integrates the individual and the individual learns to behave in socially acceptable ways. so·cial·i·za·tion n. , not having time for friendships, denying children the time to watch TV, needing more time to relax, loss of self-esteem, and the inability to work without teacher supervision. Spearman Rank Order correlation analyses by gender (male vs. female), grade level taught (k-6 vs. 7-12), parent status (children in school vs. no children in school), and teaching assignment (special education teacher vs. general education teacher) failed to evidence any statistically significant differences (p < .05). Following these two open-ended statements, a series of eight dichotomous (yes-no) questions were posed to the respondents. The eight questions and the tally of responses are listed below. Question #1: Have you personally ever conducted a formal study to verify the efficacy of homework--that is, whether or not homework is helpful or harmful to your students? (Yes = 0 No = 247). Question #2: Have you ever conducted any kind of study to verify the efficacy of homework--that is, whether or not homework is helpful or harmful to your students? (Yes = 0 No = 247). Question #3: Has your school ever conducted a study to verify the efficacy of homework--that is, whether or not homework is helpful or harmful to the students in your school? (Yes = 0 No = 247). Question #4: Has your district ever conducted a study to verify the efficacy of homework--that is, whether or not homework is helpful or harmful to the students in your district? (Yes = 0 No = 237). Question #5: Have you ever read a journal article stating that homework was beneficial to children? (Yes = 83 No = 164). Question #6: Have you ever read a journal article stating that homework was harmful to children? (Yes = 2 No = 240). Question #7. Have you ever attended a workshop or staff development on homework? (Yes = 44 No = 201). Question #8. Have you ever heard a speaker or attended a workshop wherein where·in adv. In what way; how: Wherein have we sinned? conj. 1. In which location; where: the country wherein those people live. 2. the negative effects of homework were highlighted or noted? (Yes = 0 No = 247) Discussion The respondents to this survey, all being full-time teachers, were obviously aware of issues related to homework as well as familiar with some of the research about homework. However, it should be noted that these are only perceptions of these teachers since they clearly indicated that they had never attempted either a formal or an informal assessment of the efficacy of their own homework. These lists, however, do indicate that there are potential helpful and harmful effects of homework that need to be assessed. In light of the fact that teachers and districts are eminently aware of the importance of accountability and evaluation, it is a sad tribute to education and especially to children that the efficacy of homework is not being addressed on a systematic and continuous basis. Assessment of homework might not be an easy task, however, given the positive as well as the negative consequences of homework and, especially in light of the fact that homework is assigned to every student throughout the k-12 system from September through June, this issue takes on significant proportions. It is assigned to all students, however, there are no formal systems of assessment and accountability built into the educational system. There are, in addition, many other dynamics that have not been addressed in this article, such as the differential effects of specific types of homework for specific types of students, or, for example, the efficacy of term papers, projects, group reports, posters, outside readings, and the like as they are used with students of differing abilities and capabilities. As Cooper (1989) noted, homework can be effective for review and reinforcement however, the teachers in this survey failed to verify such. It is one thing to believe that homework is efficacious ef·fi·ca·cious adj. Producing or capable of producing a desired effect. See Synonyms at effective. [From Latin effic but it is no excuse to fail to verify its efficacy. This is especially true since teachers are aware of potential harmful effects. Assessment data obtained in an on-going process via homework should be presented to a candid can·did adj. 1. Free from prejudice; impartial. 2. Characterized by openness and sincerity of expression; unreservedly straightforward: In private, I gave them my candid opinion. world and decisions rendered about the overall efficacy of homework. Kralovec and Buell (2000) make this point clear citing numerous examples of the harmful effects of homework and even the questionable legality le·gal·i·ty n. pl. le·gal·i·ties 1. The state or quality of being legal; lawfulness. 2. Adherence to or observance of the law. 3. A requirement enjoined by law. Often used in the plural. of homework as an invasive factor in the privacy of family life and the students rights to freedom from schoolwork in the evenings since compulsory attendance laws mandate school attendance in the day-time. Facts alone are necessary in order to make valid decisions about the circumstances under which and how homework should be meted-out. Should there be differential standards for homework based on grade level, student placement, and the subject matter of homework? Should district policies stipulate stip·u·late 1 v. stip·u·lat·ed, stip·u·lat·ing, stip·u·lates v.tr. 1. a. To lay down as a condition of an agreement; require by contract. b. how homework should be evaluated or should they restrict their focus only to the administration of homework? Until consistent data are available and coherent policies can be established, the world, both public and professional, will forever question the efficacy of homework Recommendations & Conclusions Based on the responses to the two open-ended statements, the teachers surveyed in this investigation overwhelmingly support the notion that homework is helpful as a means of reinforcement, review, and practice, the development of time-management skills, keeping parents informed, and reducing television viewing. These findings were not only consistent with the literature (Cooper, 1989; and, Walberg, et al., 1985), but they were equally supported by all the teachers in this survey irrespective of irrespective of prep. Without consideration of; regardless of. irrespective of preposition despite gender, grade level taught, teaching assignment, and whether or not the teacher-respondents were also parents of school age children. The respondents were also cognizant cog·ni·zant adj. Fully informed; conscious. See Synonyms at aware. [From cognizance.] Adj. 1. of the potential harmful effects of homework as highlighted by Kralovec and Buell (2001). The respondents listed increased frustration and stress, invasion of the family, loss of play time, too much work, and the possibility that homework could easily cause problems between parents and children. When the responses to these two statements are reviewed against the backdrop of the responses to the eight yes-no questions it is apparent that these teachers have no factual data to substantiate To establish the existence or truth of a particular fact through the use of competent evidence; to verify. For example, an Eyewitness might be called by a party to a lawsuit to substantiate that party's testimony. the efficacy of their homework. Thus, one is left to speculate about the validity of the responses in general. A careful review of the responses indicates that they represent two distinctly different types of opinions; one being an assumption and the other being a presumption A conclusion made as to the existence or nonexistence of a fact that must be drawn from other evidence that is admitted and proven to be true. A Rule of Law. If certain facts are established, a judge or jury must assume another fact that the law recognizes as a logical . The assumption that homework is helpful is contingent on Adj. 1. contingent on - determined by conditions or circumstances that follow; "arms sales contingent on the approval of congress" contingent upon, dependant on, dependant upon, dependent on, dependent upon, depending on, contingent students being able to benefit from assignments given by a teacher to be completed at home, without the guidance of the teacher. Not all students have the requisite skills, family support, and resources, etc., to benefit from homework. The statements about the potential harmful effects of homework are not contingent on the student's skills, abilities, family support, etc. This list is more a set of presumptions supported by logic. Homework will produce stress and anxiety if the student cannot complete it. This is not an opinion requiting data for substantiation. Homework does take away family time and play time. This too, is axiomatic ax·i·o·mat·ic also ax·i·o·mat·i·cal adj. Of, relating to, or resembling an axiom; self-evident: "It's axiomatic in politics that voters won't throw out a presidential incumbent unless they think his challenger will , because it does take away family time and play time (whether or not that is harmful is open for debate, however). In truth, all of the responses about the benefits of homework are unsubstantiated opinions whereas most of the responses about the harmful affects of homework are logically supported presumptions. The eight subsequent yes-no questions confirm that these teachers have no data to support their assumptions that homework is beneficial, they simply think it is beneficial. The demands for accountability warrant that teachers assume greater responsibility in the process of education. This mandate also implies that research into the efficacy of homework be conducted. How can the educational system allow for mandatory implementation of homework in the absence of substantive evaluation data? It is recommended that future investigations address the issue of specific types of homework for specific types of students. In addition, it is strongly suggested that teachers re-examine re·ex·am·ine also re-ex·am·ine tr.v. re·ex·am·ined, re·ex·am·in·ing, re·ex·am·ines 1. To examine again or anew; review. 2. Law To question (a witness) again after cross-examination. and challenge their assumptions about homework and the morality of taking away evening time without data to support it. In this era of research-based best practices, homework itself appears to be on thin ice. Continued investigation should also examine the option of restricting homework to reading and studying only. And, in sum, the age-old recommendation that schools provide tutors and professional assistance in the form of study halls should be re-examined, especially in this age of exit exams and rigorous achievement testing. References Cited Cooper, H. (1989). Synthesis of research on homework. Educational Leadership, 47(3), 89-91. Bok, E. (1900). A national crime at the feet of American parents, Ladies Home Journal 17:2, January 16-22. Burnham, W.H. (1905). The hygiene of home study, Pedagogical ped·a·gog·ic also ped·a·gog·i·cal adj. 1. Of, relating to, or characteristic of pedagogy. 2. Characterized by pedantic formality: a haughty, pedagogic manner. Seminary seminary Educational institution, usually for training in theology. In the U.S. the term was formerly also used to refer to institutions of higher learning for women, often teachers' colleges. 12, 213-229. Check, J.F., Ziebell, D.G. (1980). Homework: A dirty word. The Clearing House, 53, 439-441. Epstein, M.H., Polloway, E.A., Foley, R.M., & Patton, J.R. (1992). Homeworkcomparison of teachers' and parents' perceptions of the problems experienced by students identified as having behavioral disorders behavioral disorder Psychiatry A disorder characterized by displayed behaviors over a long period of time which significantly deviate from socially acceptable norms for a person's age and situation , learning disabilities, or no disabilities. Remedial REMEDIAL. That which affords a remedy; as, a remedial statute, or one which is made to supply some defects or abridge some superfluities of the common law. 1 131. Com. 86. The term remedial statute is also applied to those acts which give a new remedy. Esp. Pen. Act. 1. and Special Education, 14 (5), 40-50. Firth, G. (1991). Facilitating homework through effective support systems. Teaching Exceptional Children, 24(1), 48-49. Gill, B. and Steve Schlossman, (1966). A Sin Against Childhood: Progressive Education and the Crusade to Abolish Homework, 1897-1941. American Journal of Education Founded as School Review in 1893, the American Journal of Education acquired its present name in November 1979. Published by the University of Chicago Press, AJE 105(1), 27-66.. Greenhouse, S. (2000). Problems seen for teenagers who hold jobs. New York Times, January 29, 1-4. Hall-Quest, A.L. (1924). Supervise study in the elementary school elementary school: see school. . New York: The MacMillan Company. Heller, H.W., Spooner, F., Anderson, D., & Mires, A. (1988). Homework: A review of special education practices in the southwest. Teacher Education and Special Education, 11, 43-51. Hodapp, A.F., & Hodapp, J.B. (1992). Homework: Making it work. Interventions in School and Clinic, 27, 233-235. Harvey, D. "Too Much Homework," New York Times (April 4, 1935) p. 22. Kralovec, E. and Buell, J. (2000). The end of homework. Beacon Press This article or section needs sources or references that appear in reliable, third-party publications. Alone, primary sources and sources affiliated with the subject of this article are not sufficient for an accurate encyclopedia article. , Boston, Massachusetts “Boston” redirects here. For other uses, see Boston (disambiguation). Boston is the capital and most populous city of Massachusetts.[3] The largest city in New England, Boston is considered the unofficial economic and cultural center of the entire New . A Nation at Risk: The Imperative of Educational Reform, US Department of Education, 1983, p. 5. Roderique, T.W., Polloway, E.A., Cumblad, C., Epstein, M.H., Bursuck, W.D. (1994). Homework: A survey of policies in the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. . Journal of Learning Disabilities, Vol. 27, No. 8. October 1994, pp 481-487. Ross, C.C., & Klise, N.M. (1927). Study methods of college students in relation to intelligence and achievement. Educational Administration and Supervision, 13, 551-562. Salend, S.J., Schliff, J. (1989). An examination of the homework practices of teachers of students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 22, 621-623. Seal, K. (2001). Too much homework, too little play, New York Times, September 3, 2001. Stitt, E. W. (1916). Homework for elementary pupils. Educational Review, 50 (4). 360-386. Walberg, H.J., & Paschal, R.A., & Weinstein, T. (1985). Homework's powerful effects on learning. Educational Leadership, 46, 76-79. Yoakam, G.A. (1929). Reading and study: more effective studies through better reading habits. New York: The MacMillan Company. Stephen D. Aloia, California State University, Fullerton California State University, Fullerton, commonly known as CSUF, CSU Fullerton, or Cal State Fullerton, is a part of the California State University system. The University is located in the city of Fullerton, California, in northern Orange County. Aloia, Ph.D., is an associate professor of special education. His areas of research interest are homework efficacy, student perceptions of the heroic ideal, and parents and early literacy. |
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