Teacher and Student Perceptions of Creativity in the Classroom Environment.

Interest in creativity as an area of educational research dates from the second half of the twentieth century. Since then, creativity research findings have had an impact on educational objectives, teaching strategies, administrative practices, and the physical school environment (Torrance, 1983). Educators have emphasized the importance of favorable conditions for developing the creative potential of students. Consequently, several educators and researchers (Alencar, 1993; Henessey & Amabile, 1987; Runco, 1993a; Starko, 1995; Sternberg & Williams, 1996; Torrance, 1983) have suggested ways to cultivate creativity in an educational environment. Some efforts have also been made to discuss factors which constitute barriers to creative classroom behavior (Adams, 1986: Amabile, 1989; Von Oech, 1983).

Despite recognition that the educational environment plays an important role in developing students' creative expression, few attempts have been made to examine teacher and student perceptions about the extent to which creativity has been enhanced or inhibited in that context. According to Fryer and Collings (1991), most studies have approached teachers' views in an indirect way through measuring attitudes before and after creativity workshops, or concentrating on teachers' attitudes towards the personality characteristics associated with creativity. The purpose of this study was to investigate teachers and students perceptions about stimulants and obstacles for the development of creativity in the classroom environment.

The Influence of the Environment on Creativity

Studies in creativity have tried to conceptualize the term creativity and explain the process involved in the creative act. No consensus exists, however, about how to define creativity. The various conceptions of creativity can be divided among four categories which form focal points for researchers and persons interested in the developmental process (Feldhusen & Goh, 1995): person, product, process, and environment. According to Tardiff and Sternberg (1988), the definitions that focus on the creative person include three aspects: cognitive characteristics, personality and emotional qualities, and experiences during one's development (e.g. being a first-born, having many hobbies). The second category of definitions emphasizes the characteristics of the creative product. It must be novel, powerful, valuable or useful to society. The third category concerns process, or how to develop creative products. The creative process can involve an original way to produce unusual ideas, to make different combinations, or to add new ideas to existing knowledge. Finally, the definitions grouped in the fourth category emphasize the role of the environment in promoting or inhibiting creative abilities. In this regard, Csikszentmihalyi (1988) suggested that the most fundamental question in creativity is "where is creativity" and not "what is creativity."

Some authors (Amabile & Tighe, 1993; Csikszentmihalyi, 1996; Gardner, 1993; Sternberg & Lubart, 1991) include social, cultural or historical dimensions in their conceptions of creativity. The zeitgeist, as much as the culture, sets standards for labeling products as creative. These standards can direct an individual's potential or inhibit a creative attempt. From that perspective, creativity cannot be understood by isolating individuals and their works from their context, as "creativity does not happen inside people's heads, but in the interaction between a person's thoughts and a sociocultural context. It is a systematic rather than an individual phenomenon." (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996, p. 23)

Thus, the creation of an enhancing, harmonious and meaningful environment can contribute to the development of creative potential. In the educational setting, an environment that fosters creativity should include the following components: allowing time for creative thinking; rewarding creative ideas and products; encouraging sensible risks; allowing mistakes; imagining other viewpoints; exploring the environment; questioning assumptions (Sternberg & Williams, 1996); finding interests and problems; generating multiple hypotheses; focusing on broad ideas rather than specific facts; and thinking about the thinking processes (Starko, 1995).

According to Amabile (1989), evaluation, competition, restricted choices, conformity pressure, frequent failures and rote learning can destroy creativity in school. Torrance (1983) pointed out that a misconception about young children's inability to think productively has led to an overemphasis upon recall and reproduction to the neglect of problem solving, creative thinking and decision making in the early years.

Some studies have examined the relationship between school environment and students' creativity. Dudek, Strobel and Runco (1993) examined the influence of school environment on the creative potential of fifth and sixth grade students from eleven schools in Montreal. They found that the global climate of a school, such as the socioeconomic level and classroom differences within the same socioeconomic level schools significantly influenced students' performance on the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking. The authors also noted that the social dynamics prevailing in a classroom, comprising student-teacher composition and interactions between them, also may have an impact on students' creative abilities.

Fryer and Collings (1991) examined British teachers' perceptions of, and attitudes toward, creativity. Teachers working with pupils, between five and eighteen years old, completed a questionnaire which included items related to: definitions of creativity, factors believed to help and hinder the development of creative behavior in children, methods thought useful for identifying creative pupils and creative school work, opinions about various teaching methods and educational goals, and teaching style preferences. Results indicated that 90% of teachers believed creativity could be developed. According to teachers, creativity could be fostered by: building confidence, having a creative teacher, enjoying some free choice at home, having an involved and supportive family, and enabling pupils to have some degree of choice over learning methods.

The literature indicates that to obtain a comprehensive view of creativity, it is essential to take into consideration: the interchanges between the individual and the environment; the individual as an active element in the creative process, introducing new combinations and variations; the psychological meaning of the creation situation for the individual; and the power of the environment in establishing conditions for creation.

Methods and Procedures

Sample

Convenience sampling was used in this study. The sample consisted of 3 third grade and 3 fourth grade teachers(1) and one teacher who teaches a mixed third and fourth grade classroom. All teachers were female Caucasian Americans. They ranged in age from 34 to 52 (average age of 44). All were college graduates with degrees in education (5), liberal arts (1), and psychology (l). Three teachers had completed their Master's degree (curriculum & supervision, reading, and special education). This group's teaching experience ranged from 9 to 24 years, with an average of 15.43 years. Their teaching experience was concentrated in elementary and middle school grades. The majority of the teachers had worked in the New England region.

Fifteen third grade and 16 fourth grade students participated in this study as well(2). Regarding the grade 3 group, seven students were male and eight female. The average age was 8.13 years old. The average age was 9.38 years old for grade 4 participants, eight of whom were male and eight female. The majority of the students had studied in the same school since kindergarten. All students were Americans, except one who was born in Romania and adopted by an American family.

Finally, seven experts in creativity also participated in this study to help establish a theoretical framework. All experts held Ph. Ds. in the area of educational psychology. All had been classroom teachers (elementary and middle school), gifted and talented resource teachers/coordinators (except one), and university professors. Two experts also had taught learning disabled students.

School Setting

Teachers and students who participated in this study came from two public elementary schools in Connecticut. Both schools were located in rural areas, and had student populations under 200. School A served students from kindergarten through fourth grade in two third grade and two fourth grade classrooms, and the average number of students per class was 20. The socioeconomic area where the school was located was considered middle income. The philosophy of the school, according to the teachers who participated in the study, was child oriented. All teachers tried to meet each student's needs and to maximize everyone's strengths and talents. School B served students from kindergarten through sixth grade in one third grade classroom, one third/fourth grade classroom, and one fourth/fifth grade classroom(3). The average number of students per class was 22. This school was located in a low income area. According to the sample, teachers' perceptions of school goals were to be student centered, focusing on basic skills.

Both schools had implemented a program for gifted and talented students based on Enrichment Triad Model (Renzulli, 1977). In school A, enrichment activities with the whole class (from kindergarten through first grade) were implemented. A pullout arrangement was used with second, third and fourth grade identified gifted students. Efforts had been made to involve the community in the enrichment activities, such as a science fair, family math night and enrichment clusters (Renzulli, 1994).

In school B, there was no identification system. Enrichment activities were provided for the whole class (from kindergarten through second grade) and a pullout procedure was used in third, fourth, fifth and sixth grades with students informally nominated by the classroom teachers. Strength maximization and weakness minimization were the focus of the resource teacher for the gifted program.

Data Collection and Analysis

A qualitative approach was used in this exploratory study to investigate classroom climate in order to identify factors which stimulate and inhibit the development of students' creativity. Data were gathered from semi-structured interviews, consisting of open-ended questions, with both teachers and students. The interviews were designed to collect descriptive data in the subjects' own words and to develop insights about the subjects' perceptions and experiences.

Personal interviews were conducted with teachers in different sites such as the school library, school conference room and the teachers' classrooms when students were not present. The interview questions included the following topics: description of the classroom, activities that students like most (in teachers' opinion), description of a classroom environment that enhances/ inhibits creativity, activities and strategies implemented in the classroom to enhance students' creativity, definition of creativity, and criteria used to evaluate a student as creative.

Focus group interviews were conducted with students in three different sites in the school: library, conference room, and school psychologist's room. The focus group interview method was selected in order to facilitate verbal input from very young students (nine groups of 3 students and one group of 4 students). In this regard the student group was considered the unit of analysis rather than individual student. The interview protocol included the following topics: classroom description, the best things they do in the classroom, materials used in the classroom, activities from outside the school, definition of creativity, creative peers, opportunities to develop creativity in the classroom, situations in the classroom where students could not be creative, and three things that students would like to change in the classroom. The average focus group time was one half hour.

Two procedures were used regarding data gathered from the experts on creativity. Four experts, who worked in Connecticut, were interviewed, and three, who worked in other states, were mailed a questionnaire(4) with the same questions included in the interview protocol. These questions focused on: descriptions of a classroom environment enhancing or inhibiting creativity, how to assess the classroom environment with respect to the development of creativity, the relationship between creativity and domain-specificity, and the definition of creativity. The average interview time was 25 minutes. All interviews conducted in this study were tape recorded and later transcribed.

A qualitative perspective was used in this study. In this regard, data were analyzed through content analysis. Units of meaning were assigned to the collected data (labels or codes). These units were clustered and categories were generated. Finally, analysis was complete when the relationships among categories were established (Marshall & Rossman, 1995). The objective was to identify salient themes and patterns that map the dynamics of the classroom environment and to determine to what extent they affect the students' creativity.

Results

Teachers' Perceptions

Teachers' descriptions of their classrooms included two basic aspects: characteristics of the students and activities. Regarding characteristics of the students, teachers described the differences among students' abilities and students' emotional issues. With respect to the activities the students preferred, they indicated: computer access, creative writing, projects, hands-on activities, and activities that integrate academic subjects.

Teachers perceived that school environment definitely contributes to the development of students' creativity (see Table 1). The teachers described a classroom environment which enhances creativity from three main perspectives: teachers' attitudes, strategies, and activities. Several teacher attitudes were mentioned which contributed to the development of creativity: not imposing too many assignments and rules on students, giving students choices, providing students opportunities to become aware of their creativity, accepting students as they are, and boosting students' self-confidence. One of the teachers explained: "I think that some people are not creative because they don't think they are. I think if we let them know they are, they can be. Some of us are more creative than others, but I think we can develop it. It takes time to be more creative. It takes a certain amount of self-esteem." Strategies that foster creativity according to the teachers are: cooperative groups (students have access to different points of view), cluster groups (students' interests and strengths are taken in consideration), and free time such as bonus Friday. Open-ended activities, creative writing, and a broad range of activities should be developed in a creative classroom. Unstructured time was also mentioned as a way to enhance classroom creativity.

Table 1

Teachers' Description of a Classroom Environment That Enhances Creativity

Category                 Components

Teachers' attitudes      Giving students choices
                         Boosting students' self-confidence
                         Accepting students as they are
                         Not imposing things on students
                         Providing students opportunities to
                         become aware of their creativity

Strategies               Cooperative groups
                         Cluster groups
                         Free time
                         Arts center
                         Flexible directions
                         Brainstorming

Activities               Open-ended activities
                         Hands-on
                         Creative writing
                         Drawing

Educational system       Unstructured time

The teachers were asked about what they did in the classroom to develop students' creativity. Activities and strategies they mentioned included: creative writing, open-ended activities, and drawing. Varied strategies were used by teachers to foster students' creativity: allowing students to choose what they want to do (free time), developing arts centers, giving students flexible directions, brainstorming ideas, and giving options to students.

According to the teachers, some classroom environments inhibit students' creativity, including classroom climate and activities, the educational system, and teachers' attitudes (see Table 2). Teachers identified several inhibiting classroom climate factors: students believe that they cannot share their ideas, ideas are ignored, mistakes are not tolerated, one correct answer is required. Examples of activities which can block creativity are drill work and the use of a large number of worksheets. Controlling teachers was also highlighted as an inhibiting characteristic of students' creativity. The educational characteristics which were considered barriers to the development of creativity included: timed testing, structures and schedules. too much curriculum to cover, and lack of time.

Table 2

Teachers' Description of a Classroom Environment That Inhibits Creativity

Category                Components

Classroom climate       Students cannot share their ideas
                        Ideas are ignored
                        Mistakes are not allowed
                        One right answer is required

Activities              Drill work
                        Worksheets

Teachers' attitudes     Controlling teacher

Educational system      Time testing
                        Structure and schedule
                        Huge curriculum to cover
                        Lack of time

Creativity was defined by the teachers as: process, person and environment. The process category included the majority of the definitions: novel approach to routine procedures, a different approach to problems and assignments, and modifying previous ideas. The person category included definitions such as being able to express themselves in ways which make sense to them. The environment category was mentioned as an important variable in fostering creativity. Aspects of the environment such as openness and acceptance were mentioned frequently in the interviews.

Finally, diverse criteria were used by teachers to evaluate', a student as being creative. They focused on teacher behaviors such as listening to students, viewing them outside of structured activities (free time, for example), and reading their journals. However, the majority of the criteria were related to students' behaviors, and included: initiative, perseverance, task commitment, language, curiosity, and different approach to a question. One of the teachers added: "I just think the kids are naturally creative. And I do agree with the belief that children are more creative when they are young because as soon as they get to a certain age, like 9 or 10, the peer pressure comes into it and they don't want to stand out doing their own thing, in their own way."

Students' Perceptions

The students described their classroom in three different ways. First, they mentioned the subjects they liked most, such as reading and mathematics. They also said that they enjoyed their school work, and have fun in the classroom. Second, they talked about their relationship with other people at school, especially friends and teachers, in a very positive way. Finally, the activities that they like most to do in class were drawing, playing with computers, writing projects and stories, mathematics activities (arithmetic development daily, multiplication games, add and subtract bingo, problem solving), and free time, because they could choose what to do in the classroom.

With respect to the material they use in the classroom, students mentioned common materials, such as pencils, pens, crayons, different papers, scissors, computers, calculators, dictionaries, and mathematics manipulatives. The majority of the students indicated that they have enough materials in the classroom. Regarding activities outside of the school, field trips were remembered. Guest speakers were also mentioned by the students as an interesting activity. The students also wanted to have field trips and guest speakers more frequently.

When the students were asked to define creativity, they highlighted the process and some activities. The definitions of creativity related to the process were: producing something new and/or different, using your imagination, and creating your own style. Arts activities were associated with creativity. The students were asked to nominate a creative person in their classroom. Most nominated their friends. Some teachers were nominated as well. According to the students, people are creative because they are great artists (they draw very well), or good writers, or they have good ideas. Only one male student nominated himself. Asked if they consider themselves creative, the majority of students agreed, others said they were creative sometimes, in some areas.

Most students agreed that they have opportunities to develop their creativity in the classroom. They identified mathematics activities, writing lab, arts/drawing, reading, science activities and, free time as the most creative moments in their classrooms. Some students said that those opportunities are not frequent. And two students believed that, in fact, they could not be creative in the classroom, as: "I am creative at home. Sometimes I don't want to get in trouble, so I don't use my creativity in the classroom."

Finally, the students were asked about changes they would like to make in their classroom. Their responses focused on four aspects: time, computers, peers, and adult help. Regarding time, the students said they would like to have more time for computer activities and free time. Two students, identified as gifted, said that they would like to get time in class to do a project they need to do outside the class, because "I am in the all high groups and then that puts more work on me ... your brain gets so tired that you can't do anymore," and "some days I feel like I wish I was not so smart." They would like to have more computers in their classroom, as well as more videogames and access to Internet. With respect to peers, two students said that they get bored in the class when the teacher has to explain many times the content that other students did not understand. Students in a multigrade classroom revealed that they would like to have one classroom for fourth grade students only. The students mentioned that it would be very helpful to have assistant teachers in the classroom, so the classroom teacher would have more time to discuss ideas, projects and develop creative activities.

Experts' Perceptions

The experts who participated in this study described a classroom environment that enhances creativity in three different dimensions: teaching strategies, teachers' attitudes, and classroom climate. With respect to teaching strategies, discovery learning rather than excessive lectures and emphasis on open-ended questions were suggested. According to the experts, teaching strategies should reflect student-centered views, as well as provide opportunities for students to engage in a variety of activities.

Teachers' attitudes and classroom climate were highlighted. Regarding teachers' attitudes, the experts said that it is important that teacher recognize students' strengths, abilities and interests, encourage different responses, encourage humor, questions and risk-taking, and provide children different options. With respect to the classroom climate, a psychologically safe environment was mentioned by almost all the experts.

The experts were also asked to describe a classroom environment that inhibits students' creativity. Almost the same categories used in the previous question were applied to this question. Concerning teaching strategies, for example, an inhibiting classroom is one where strategies are teacher-centered and lots of assignment directions are provided. A limited and rigid physical environment does not allow interaction among children, nor does it provide opportunities for students to engage in a variety of activities. Also, teachers who do not accept students' ideas, expect little creativity from their children, and limit students' choice are regarded as potential inhibitors of students' creative abilities. In a climate in which fear, one right answer, little acceptance for a variety of students' products, extreme levels of competition, and many extrinsic rewards are predominant, it is difficult to foster high levels of creativity.

Asked about how to assess the classroom environment with respect to the development of students' creativity, the experts suggested factors such as psychological safety, intellectual risk-taking, and opportunities for creative expression. Most experts proposed using some kind of measurement, such as observation (open-ended observation, checklist of the classroom environment, or physical environment, or teachers, or interaction teacher-students), scale (teacher self-rating, students scale of classroom environment, creative students scale), students' products, and students' interviews.

Discussion

Teachers' perceptions about classroom characteristics that enhance students' creativity focused primarily on teachers' attitudes. Although teachers' attitudes were also found to some degree in the literature, the convergent point between teachers and experts seemed to be the teaching strategies which foster creativity, such as discovery and cooperative learning. Description of activities that enhance creativity in the classroom, as suggested by teachers, were not the focus of experts in the field. Instead, they discussed and provided alternatives regarding the implementation of activities in the classroom. Although teachers were aware of the characteristics that enhance creativity in the classroom, it seemed that the transference to practice was intuitive. Teachers' lack of procedural knowledge may be explained by the fact that they have not received formal creativity training. Therefore, a creativity training program for teachers, involving instructional planning, discussions, and follow-up observations might be helpful to guide and systematize teachers' efforts and knowledge.

It is interesting to note that students' self-evaluation and intrinsic or extrinsic rewards, although frequently mentioned in the literature, were not considered by either teachers in this study or teachers in Fryer and Coilings's research (1991). Rewards have been largely used to praise students' academic performance. It seems however that this procedure was ignored when a creative idea is expressed in the classroom. In this regard, Amabile suggested (1989): "When you do give rewards, give them for creativity as well as for correct work. In this way, your children will clearly get the message that creativity is allowed, encouraged, and valued in the classroom" (p. 144). Self-evaluation has been neglected as an alternative way for assessing students' achievement. Teachers may believe they are "losing" control of their classrooms and transferring power to students. However, exercising self-evaluation can help students to develop responsibility for their learning process.

Students presented a positive view of both their school and their self-concept about their creative abilities. They described many situations, although inconsistently, in which they had opportunities to express their creativity. Most activities mentioned by students involved choice, use of their imagination, and opportunity to develop their personal style. In general, the perceptions of students and teachers with respect to classroom activities that students liked most, or considered more creative, were similar. Most children could not identify classroom situations that blocked their creativity, which might be explained by the age of the children in this study. They were either not readily able to use reflective thinking or they had experienced primary classrooms (K-3) in which creativity had been nurtured. According to Runco (1993b), school children have difficulty recognizing creative ideas, although they are able to identify unusual ideas. The students also emphasized the relationship between arts (specifically drawings) and creativity. The misconception that creativity can be fostered or expressed especially in arts (Alencar, 1993) still seemed to predominate in students' perceptions.

The aspects of creativity most often highlighted by teachers, students, and experts were the process of producing something original and making one's own style. Creativity was not regarded as synonymous with individual internal characteristics, but as a result of the interaction between person and environment. However, when asked how they would evaluate students as creative, teachers mentioned intrapersonal characteristics, rather than creative processes.

Classroom characteristics which inhibit creativity have been identified in the literature as: the use of one right answer, no mistakes, ignored ideas, competition, and evaluation. These points as well as competition were also found in this study. Other inhibiting characteristics mentioned by the teachers in this study, and less emphasized by other researchers, included strict discipline, drill work, emphasis on curriculum, and lack of time. Regarding the inhibitors to creativity, teachers' focus was on aspects of the educational system which contrast with teachers' perceptions that their own attitudes were responsible for enhancing creativity in the classroom. On the other hand, the credit for blocking creative expression was attributed to the educational system, reflecting teachers' perceptions of their inability to make changes and excusing themselves of any responsibility in this process.

Finally, this was an exploratory qualitative study using convenience sample. This limits the generalizability of the findings and it does not enable the establishment of cause-and-effect relationships (Huck & Cormier, 1996). Classroom observations should be included in future research. The interview technique is limited because it deals only with people's perceptions which, in many cases, can be biased. Another point that deserves attention is the use of focus-group interviews with young students. Although this method can provide different perspectives and stimulate students' thinking, the group can guide individual student ideas. Further research using individual interviews should be considered. Alternative ways to assess classroom environment with respect to students' creativity development, such as observation, use of scales, and students' product assessment should also be included in another study.

To enhance creativity, it is necessary to develop a comprehensive perspective of the challenge. To emphasize strategies or activities to be implemented in the classroom is not enough. The affective interaction between teacher and student should be considered. It is also important to discuss characteristics of the educational system that have been pointed out as restrictive of students' and teachers' creative expression. "Creating a harmonious, meaningful environment in space and time helps you to become personally creative" (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996, p. 146).

(1) One of the 4th grade teachers teaches a mixed 4th and 5th grade calssroom.

(2) The students were selected by the classroom teacher. Although teachers were requested to randomly select the students, there was no guarantee that this procedure was followed.

(3) The reason for having two mixed classrooms is related to the limitation of physical space of the school.

(4) Preliminary contacts were made via telephone or electronic-mail. Three out of four questionnaires mailed were returned.

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Denise de Souza Fleith is an assistant professor at the University of Brasilia, and a doctoral candidate at the University of Connecticut with support from CAPES, Brasilia, Brazil.