Teacher Training in Family Involvement.

An Interpersonal Approach

Today, perhaps more than ever, we look to education as a way to address the challenges facing families. In response to the complexity of modern family lives, teacher training needs a broad perspective that reflects an expanding professional role (Coleman, 1997; Coleman & Churchill, 1997; Davies, 1991; Edwards & Young, 1992; Lynn, 1997b).

Diversity is a hallmark of contemporary early childhood programs. Classrooms include children from various religious, socioeconomic, cultural, racial, and family backgrounds (Coleman & Churchill, 1997; Garinger & McBride, 1995). Early childhood educators are examining the meaning and impact of this diversity upon early childhood settings (see Harry, 1992; Ogbu, 1992; Patterson, 1992; Procidano & Fisher, 1992; Slonim, 1991). Educators are exploring teaching tolerance and empathy as preparation for life in a diverse American society (see, for example, the Teaching Tolerance Project, 1997).

Educators also are being asked to consider the total context of children's lives. Schools are forming collaborative relationships with families and community agencies to address the physical, social, and educational needs of young children and their families (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997; Knapp, 1995; Lynn, 1997a; Zigler & Gilman, 1994).

JUSTIFYING A FAMILY INVOLVEMENT TRAINING COURSE

This article is based upon a Family-School-Community course that is part of an early childhood teacher training and certification program at the University of Georgia. During the past decade, a number of professional reviews have been devoted to family involvement models, practices, programs, and research (Epstein, 1991; Hoffman, 1991), including the international status of family involvement (Sanders & Epstein, 1998). Although debate continues over the extent to which research supports different family involvement outcomes (White, Taylor, & Moss, 1992), it is clear that educators and families alike recognize the developmental and educational significance of pursuing the following (Kelley-Laine, 1998; Ryan & Adams, 1995; Scott-Jones, 1995; Silvern, 1988; Wang, Haertel, & Walberg, 1993):

* Families and teachers communicating' their expectations that children do well in school

* Families monitoring children's academic efforts and accomplishments

* Families engaging children in conversations about their school day

* Families providing children with in-home learning experiences

* Families receiving school services that support children's overall welfare

* Families providing input into curriculum issues

* Families communicating their values and expectations to schools

* Schools communicating with families about early childhood educational practices.

We are fortunate that models are now available to structure these and other family involvement activities (Epstein, 1995; Epstein & Dauber, 1991). Such structural models of family involvement, however, must be accompanied by strategies for facilitating family involvement interactions.

STRATEGIES FOR FACILITATING FAMILY INVOLVEMENT INTERACTIONS

Linking children's family and school lives involves more than just a structural understanding of family and school contexts. It also requires a willingness and ability to communicate with families, explore possible options for action, and support families experiencing emotional stress. The importance of linking structural aspects of family involvement with family-school interpersonal interactions is reflected in a recent report from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (Kelley-Laine, 1998). The OECD, a collection of nine member nations, distinguishes between the "collective involvement" of engaging parents in specific activities like policymaking and curriculum development, and the need to foster "individual involvement" through psycho-social support and family-school communication. Especially important are the interpersonal dynamics of encouraging mutual support between families and schools, establishing family-school rights and responsibilities, and communicating with a broad cross-section of families (Kelley-Laine, 1998).

The following teacher training strategies are used at the University of Georgia to help student teachers link "collective" and "individual" involvement through facilitating family-school relationships. They differ from many previous family involvement strategies in two ways. First, these strategies emphasize reflective analysis as a prerequisite to family involvement planning. Understanding and communicating about families' interests, strengths, expectations, and needs is essential when planning and carrying out meaningful family involvement activities. Second, the strategies emphasize an empathetic approach in which student teachers place their own viewpoints within the context of those expressed by families. This does not mean that students discount their own views, only that their views gain importance and meaning when they are considered within the broader context of family lives.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs 

Maslow's classic presentation of human needs (1943, 1970, pp. 80-89) provides one basis for understanding families' interactions with teachers and school administrators. The premise of Maslow's theory is that five needs, arranged in a hierarchy, establish the parameters by which individuals set life priorities. The same hierarchy of needs also can be used to assess family priorities. For example, the implications of Maslow's theory for assessing and interacting with "at-risk" families already has been addressed (White & Coleman, 2000). See Table 1.

Table 1 USING MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS TO FACILITATE FAMILY INVOLVEMENT INTERACTIONS

Physiological Needs

Teachers can expect families that are socioeconomically
disadvantaged to place high priority on the most basic
physiological or survival needs like clothing, food, and
housing. Families dealing with such needs may have difficulty
attending highly structured family involvement activities,
keeping a consistent schedule, or following through on
referrals. Teachers can respect families' physiological
or survival needs in the following ways:

* Be patient and understanding of family priorities

* Direct families to school or community resources for
assistance

* Act as a protective agent of children from disadvantaged
families, ensuring that all children are treated with
respect and fairness.

Safety Needs

Safety needs can be both physical (e.g., neighborhood crime,
physical abuse) and emotional (e.g., emotional abuse, insecurity).
Parents and guardians who are attempting to have their
safety needs met may be fearful or distrustful of authority
figures and institutions. They may question teachers about
school safety, confidentiality, fairness, and child guidance.
Teachers can respond by:

* Taking time to review school and parent handbooks
with families

* Inviting families to help assess and revise school safety
policies and discipline practices

* Setting interpersonal safety rules regarding confidentiality
and respect for differences of opinion.

Belonging Needs

Once survival and safely needs are met, families begin to search
for a sense of belonging with others and to feel accepted in their
child's classroom. Support families by:

* Verbally reinforcing all attempts by parents and guardians
to contribute to their children's education and to the
classroom learning environment

* Making meetings comfortable by providing security,
comfortable seating, child care services, adequate lighting,
and light snacks

* Treating all families with equal respect, and welcome all
families with enthusiasm

* Demonstrating families' place in the classroom by
displaying personal photographs and artwork submitted
by families, posting notes on a bulletin board,
letting parents and guardians know what special events
are planned, and inviting their observation and/or
participation.

Esteem Needs

Esteem is a higher-order need that makes us strive for a sense
of accomplishment, self-confidence, and assertiveness. Families
seek approval of their ability to manage their lives and make a
contribution to their children's development. Address family
esteem needs by:

* Giving parents and guardians specific examples of the
contributions that they make to their children's education
within the classroom, home, and community

* Planning family workshops on effective communication
and assertiveness training

* Giving equal public recognition to all families; personal
recognition can be delivered one-on-one

* Taking a proactive stance in inviting shy parents and
guardians to visit with you; it may be necessary to
arrange a neutral meeting site (e.g., community center, fast
food restaurant, cafeteria, religious institution, library), or
to ask if you might briefly visit a family at home.

Self-actualization Needs

Two characteristics of self-actualization (the last and highest
need in Maslow's hierarchy) are self-confidence and creativity.
Families display self-actualization when they are able to assert
their rights, make informed and creative suggestions, and
respectfully question the status quo. Assist families in meeting
their self-actualization needs by:

* Asking families about their aspirations for their children

* Seeking out parent and guardian suggestions for classroom
modifications

* Individualizing suggestions for how families might reinforce
or expand classroom learning experiences within their
respective homes, taking into account the interests and
skills of individual children, as well as family backgrounds.

Empowering Families

Proponents define family empowerment as a process by which family members develop the self-confidence and motivation to advocate for their children and take proactive steps to manage their own lives (Cochran & Dean, 1991; White & Coleman, 2000). Proactive management reflects the importance of family involvement as a supportive endeavor (Coleman, 1997) that is based on equality (Coleman & Churchill, 1997; Kelley-Laine, 1998) and partnerships (Sanders & Epstein, 1998). From a family involvement perspective, the general goal behind empowering families is to increase the self-confidence and assertiveness of parents and guardians in promoting their children's education (Swick & Graves, 1993). Three characteristics form the foundation for such family empowerment (Walker, Martin, & Thompson, 1988), each of which has practical implications for teacher training in family-school interactions (White & Coleman, 2000). Recognition of Cultural Context. Recognizing the cultural background of families helps to reinforce their sense of belonging and sends a message of inclusiveness.

Recognition of cultural context can be achieved in ways that extend beyond the traditional, but important, inclusion of culturally diverse materials and visual representations within educational settings.

* Choose a range of assessment strategies. This may mean relying upon teacher and parent observations, in addition to portfolio assessments, rather than more formal checklists and standardized tests.

* Ensure that all communication sent home is written in the language spoken at the child's home.

* Match written and verbal communication to families' cultural and educational backgrounds.

* When families speak about their backgrounds, listen for cultural cues. Names, parenting practices and beliefs about childhood, dietary and health care practices, and communication styles all may have cultural significance (Slonim, 1991). Teachers who understand such cultural influences are better prepared to communicate respectfully and effectively with families.

* Look for individuality, not collectivism. Categorizing families into discrete groups, like "single parents" or "African American families," is dangerous, as individuals within these groups have many more individual differences than they have collective similarities.

Responsiveness to the Vulnerable. Vulnerable families include those who, historically, have had limited power, including people of color, low-income families, gay- and lesbian-headed households, grandparents (who are custodians of their grandchildren), foster parents, single mothers, single fathers, families that speak English as a second language, and families dealing with mental, intellectual, and/or physical disabilities. As a means for promoting empathy and respect, student teachers in the Family-School-Community course at the university brainstorm ways that schools could support vulnerable families. Some of the students' suggestions include the following:

* Ask yourself two questions--"On what basis am I defining this family as `vulnerable'?" and "Does this family see itself as vulnerable?"

* Appoint a committee that is charged with developing case scenarios and facilitating group discussions on working with vulnerable families

* Identify parents and guardians who are willing to serve as resources for helping teachers respond to sensitive issues in a respectful manner

* Develop a list of community professionals who can update teachers on changes in social service and health programs

* Identify classroom resources (e.g., children's books, videos, artwork, music) for designing age-appropriate, positive, and thoughtful class activities addressing family stressors.

Participation and Equality. Active participation in family involvement requires that each family's "interest niche" be identified and recognized. A simple survey or an informal conversation with parents and guardians can provide insight into family interests and skills. Give attention to individual interests, hobbies, daily routines, and job skills. We suggest that student teachers use this information to plan family involvement activities. Otherwise, their programs might revolve around personal, or school, interests. Recommendations for promoting family participation and equality include:

* Create social networks among families with similar interests and needs

* Arrange training sessions on topics of interest to both parents and teachers (e.g., child safety, communication skills, child guidance)

* Establish collaborative parent-teacher projects, such as making a school butterfly garden, publishing a family-school recipe book, or planning a community field trip.

Student Reflections

A number of barriers can detail family-school relations (Coleman & Churchill, 1997; White & Coleman, 2000). Personal reflection about the possible meaning and impact of these barriers can help student teachers to think through and address threatening situations. Guides to action that we have used to initiate reflective thinking about family involvement barriers are listed in Table 2.

Table 2 EXPERIENCES FOR STRUCTURING REFLECTIVE THOUGHT ABOUT FAMILY INVOLVEMENT BARRIERS

The following learning experiences can be used to encourage student reflection about family involvement barriers.

Ambiguous Boundaries

Ask students to:

* Create a media scrapbook with newspaper and magazine
articles related to family-school "boundary" issues (e.g.,
challenges to discipline policies, school choice, sex
education)

* Invite parents and teachers to serve on a family-school
discussion panel to explore family-school boundary topics
(e.g., parent vs. teacher expectations of early childhood
education, the importance of the arts in early childhood
education, preparing children for school tests).

Ambiguous Definitions

Ask students to:

* Conduct interviews with community leaders or school
board members regarding their definitions of family,
education, and family involvement

* Compare their own definitions of family, childhood, and
community, considering how they are different from
those of their grandparents, their parents, and the
families represented in their classrooms.

Diversity

Ask students to:

* Critique classrooms for signs of diversity, making suggestions
for improvement as needed

* Make a resource booklet of community events, people,
and other resources (e.g., museums, civic groups) that
might be used to learn about particular cultures.

Institutional Support

Ask students to:

* Collect and review budgets used to support family involvement
programs

* Interview experienced teachers about the types of support
they receive and need.

Family Involvement Philosophy

Ask students to:

* Collect and review school philosophies of family involvement,
identifying the goals, responsibilities, and implications
associated with the different philosophies

* Write their own philosophy of family involvement, comparing
and contrasting the resulting implications for family
involvement (Coleman, 1997).

Family-School-Community Collaboration

Ask students to:

* Conduct a mock press conference to review their family
philosophy (fellow students can act as reporters)

* Interview community social service staff about strengths
and gaps in social service delivery, including underserved
geographic areas.

Ambiguous Boundaries. The boundaries that separate families and schools are sometimes vague. For example, disagreements between parents/guardians and teachers can arise over discipline practices, classroom materials and schedules, and expectations. All teachers face the challenge of respecting the delicate balance of responsibilities that families and schools share in the education and socialization of young children. Some reflective questions asked by student teachers regarding boundary issues are:

* What is my professional role in this situation?

* How do I feel about my professional role?

* What is the role of parents in this situation?

* How might these parents feel about their role?

* How can I best work with parents to resolve this situation?

Ambiguous Definitions. Definitions represent another common barrier to family-school trust and cooperation. The meaning given to the concepts of family, childhood, education, and community can vary greatly. Single, working parents likely have different family life pressures than do dual-career parents, for example. These pressures may lead to different definitions and expectations regarding children's in-home and school activities. Some reflective questions are:

* What does "family" mean to these parents (in terms of structure, living arrangements, priorities)?

* How might my own definition of "family" influence my interactions with families?

* How do parents define concepts like "achievement," "discipline," and "motivation"?

* Are children in my classroom respectful of differences in value-laden concepts like "family" or "home"?

Diversity. As noted earlier, diversity has far-reaching implications for planning and implementing family involvement programs. University of Georgia students reflect upon "diversity preparedness." Reflective questions include:

* How can I learn about this child's cultural background through her art and language?

* What community events can I attend to learn more about this child's ethnic background?

* Have I placed important cultural and religious holidays on my calendar this month?

* What types of humor and behavior may be viewed as insulting by different cultures?

* How can I involve families in helping to educate children in my classroom about diverse customs, languages, and beliefs?

Institutional Support. Even the best family involvement plans need administrative support. Implementation of creative family involvement activities requires resources. Emotional support is needed when family-school conflicts arise. A sympathetic ear is always an important resource for thinking through new family involvement plans, as well as their intended and possible unintended consequences. Reflective questions resulting from student teachers' field experiences include:

* What are my supervisors' views on family involvement?

* How do my supervisors interact with families?

* Do I have the support of fellow teachers to carry out this family involvement plan?

* Who in my school is good at solving problems and thinking creatively?

Family Involvement Philosophy. All successful family involvement programs can be traced to a clear philosophy that is used to define and justify actions related to family-school interactions (Coleman, 1997). Consider the following reflective questions:

* What three things do I want to achieve through family involvement?

* Does this family involvement activity focus more on the child, or on the family?

* What types of reactions to my philosophy might I receive from families, my fellow teachers, and my administrators?

* Can I use my philosophy to quickly explain and justify my family involvement program to the media?

Family-School-Community Collaboration. Families not only interact with their children's school, they also interact with community agencies, religious institutions, youth clubs, and individual professionals. At times, teachers may be asked to provide information to, or meet with, community professionals. Teachers who have a good understanding of their community are better prepared to cooperate with other professionals in support of children and their families. Student teachers have suggested the following reflective questions:

* What are the missions and services provided by community agencies?

* Which agencies do the families in my classroom seem to mention the most often? Do I need to learn more about these agencies?

* How would I respond if a family asked me to meet with a community professional to discuss their child? What are my professional and legal responsibilities?

* Do I have the skills to communicate basic education concepts and principles effectively to community professionals in other fields?

* What is my role (passive or active) when working with other community professionals to address the welfare of a child or her family?

Taking Multiple Perspectives

Student teachers often express anxiety and uncertainty over their ability to communicate effectively with families, especially those from backgrounds different from their own. For this reason we encourage the use of standard reflective listening strategies, which will help students take multiple perspectives of family-school interactions and maintain clear lines of communication.

Listen First. Some people are better at listening than others, but we all can become better listeners by following a few simple principles. First, focus only on what is being said by putting aside the internal self-dialogue that we often conduct (e.g., "Why he is telling me this?" "I really don't want to hear this." "What I am going to say when he stops speaking?"). Also, postpone taking notes and refrain from asking questions. Just listen.

Listen Not Only to What Is Being Said, But to How It Is Being Said. What is the emotional tone behind the words? What is the body language (e.g., the person's gestures, level of eye contact, etc.)? Taking both the spoken and unspoken word into account often can provide better insight into the types and depth of feelings being communicated by family members.

Reflect and Correct. Reflection is a standard practice in communication training, and it is especially useful in assessing and clarifying multiple perspectives (e.g., "Let me make sure that I'm hearing you correctly." "I want to make sure that I'm with you on this point." "I heard you say that ..."). We should note that students often feel uncomfortable when first reflecting back statements. With a little practice, however, students frequently see the value of this skill in helping them to circumvent family-school miscommunication. Role-playing and practice with supervising teachers and fellow classmates can help students to make this skill a part of their professional interactions.

CONCLUSION

Student teacher training in facilitating family involvement requires attention to structural models and activities, as well as to interpersonal issues. Reflection and empathy can help teachers develop a sense of confidence in assessing the quality of family-school relations, and to take steps to actively facilitate positive interactions.

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Mick Coleman is Associate Professor, and Charlotte Wallinga is Associate Professor, Department of Child and Family Development, University of Georgia, Athens.