Supporting electronic discourse: principles of design from a social constructivist perspective.With the ever-increasing popularity of the Interact in education, social constructivists among others claim that electronic discourse positively influences cognitive development. Unfortunately, not much research has been done to indicate that the use of computer-mediated communication Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC) can be defined broadly as any form of data exchange across two or more networked computers. More frequently, the term is narrowed to include only those communications that occur via computer-mediated formats (i.e. (CMC (Common Messaging Calls) A programming interface specified by the XAPIA as the standard messaging API for X.400 and other messaging systems. CMC is intended to provide a common API for applications that want to become mail enabled. 1. ) is related to positive learning outcomes, demonstrating the need for CMC environments that support learning. To develop such environments, educational researchers, practitioners, and designers of electronic tools need to explore how to sustain productive dialogue in an electronic setting and understand the relationship between CMC and learning. The goal of this article is to inform readers about the design and development of electronic environments that engage students in sustained, productive discourse. After exploring social constructivist con·struc·tiv·ism n. A movement in modern art originating in Moscow in 1920 and characterized by the use of industrial materials such as glass, sheet metal, and plastic to create nonrepresentational, often geometric objects. theory, this article investigates successful collaboration followed by characteristics of communication in an electronic setting, arriving at suggestions for improving the use and effectiveness of CMC environments. To facilitate productive interaction in an electronic environment, the strategies suggested are (a) structuring interaction with authentic tasks, questioning strategies, role assignment, interdependent in·ter·de·pen·dent adj. Mutually dependent: "Today, the mission of one institution can be accomplished only by recognizing that it lives in an interdependent world with conflicts and overlapping interests" assessment, and awareness techniques and (b) training for interaction by moderating interaction, providing feedback, and modeling desirable behaviors. ********** Language is a powerful tool for self-expression, yet it is not generated solely by the individual. Language is used to express opinions and give voice to thoughts, but the words chosen are shaped by the language of others. In educational settings, the verbalization of thoughts and exchange of ideas involved in collaborative learning Collaborative learning is an umbrella term for a variety of approaches in education that involve joint intellectual effort by students or students and teachers. Collaborative learning refers to methodologies and environments in which learners engage in a common task in which each are believed to result in positive learning outcomes. With the proliferation proliferation /pro·lif·er·a·tion/ (pro-lif?er-a´shun) the reproduction or multiplication of similar forms, especially of cells.prolif´erativeprolif´erous pro·lif·er·a·tion n. of technology used for communication purposes, questions arise regarding the computer's impact on peer interaction and learning. When students communicate with peers through a computer network, how is the interaction different than when their audience is in front of them? Are their ways of knowing and learning different in this situation? This article explores what can be learned from studying peer discourse in classrooms and how networked learning environments might support effective peer discourse. Research on electronic discourse has been aimed primarily at comparing computer-mediated communication with the assumed benchmark of face-to-face interaction. Rather than offering a comparison of face-to-face versus electronic discourse, this article is interested in communication that supports learning and in the nature of the interaction that achieves that purpose. This article begins with a theoretical framework for the study of discourse, followed by a review of methods of facilitating interaction found in the literature. Next, factors that influence the use of computer-mediated communication (CMC) are investigated and the relationship between CMC and learning is explored. This discussion will be useful for teachers considering CMC as an instructional medium. Building from a discussion of productive CMC, the article concludes with ideas about how CMC can promote the development of discourse leading to positive learning outcomes. Theoretical Framework From a social constructivist perspective, discourse is a fundamental symbolic tool for cognitive development. Social theories of learning suggest that meaning is constructed from appropriating dialogue of others and forming dialogue in response (Wertsch, 1991; Bakhtin, 1981), so that communication is shaped by prior knowledge as well as the knowledge of others. Bakhtin articulated a theory of discourse grounded in a social context. He asserted that communication is an active process in which the participants shape one another's dialogue. According to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. Bakhtin (1981), "language is not a neutral media that passes freely and easily on into the private property of the speaker's intentions; it is populated--overpopulated--with the intentions of others" (p. 294). The role of other participants is not merely to understand the speaker, but rather to prompt the speaker's response, helping him or her form an utterance ut·ter·ance 1 n. 1. a. The act of uttering; vocal expression. b. The power of speaking; speech: as long as I have utterance. c. . Bakhtin argued that utterances are shaped by those that have preceded it as well as subsequent utterances, constructed in anticipation of social response. The underlying premise for peer learning is founded in social constructivist epistemology Constructivism is a perspective in philosophy that views all of our knowledge as "constructed", under the assumption that it does not necessarily reflect any external "transcendent" realities; it is contingent on convention, human perception, and social experience. . Knowledge is discovered by students working together. Learning is a process of social negotiation or collaborative sense making, mentoring, and joint knowledge construction (Piaget, 1926; Vygotsky, 1978). Through the process of negotiating meaning, students broaden their own understanding, which is then individually reconstructed re·con·struct tr.v. re·con·struct·ed, re·con·struct·ing, re·con·structs 1. To construct again; rebuild. 2. using prior knowledge and experience. Language use and learning interact in a spiraling fashion within communities of learners; talking with more skilled members of the community enables the student to acquire some of their expertise and a language for operating within the domain. This, in turn, allows the student to contribute to the problem-solving effort and provides opportunities for further conversational exchanges about more advanced topics. Discourse is a means by which students coconstruct knowledge as they strengthen and expand their individual understanding. With this social constructivist view of discourse to support collaborative learning as pedagogical ped·a·gog·ic also ped·a·gog·i·cal adj. 1. Of, relating to, or characteristic of pedagogy. 2. Characterized by pedantic formality: a haughty, pedagogic manner. practice, this article explores ways to facilitate productive collaboration, discusses communication in an electronic setting, and explores effects of peer interaction in an electronic environment on learning. This organization allows for a general awareness of what influences collaborative learning before exploring the merits and shortcomings A shortcoming is a character flaw. Shortcomings may also be:
Facilitating Productive Interaction While much remains unknown about the relationship between interaction and learning in classrooms, many researchers agree that collaboration and achievement are positively related (Cohen cohen or kohen (Hebrew: “priest”) Jewish priest descended from Zadok (a descendant of Aaron), priest at the First Temple of Jerusalem. The biblical priesthood was hereditary and male. , 1994; Edelson, Pea, & Gomez, 1996; Webb & Farivar, 1994). Research has shown that giving explanations is more predictive of achievement than is receiving explanations and that giving explanations is usually positively correlated cor·re·late v. cor·re·lat·ed, cor·re·lat·ing, cor·re·lates v.tr. 1. To put or bring into causal, complementary, parallel, or reciprocal relation. 2. with achievement (Nattiv, 1994; Webb, 1991). In analyses of group problem solving problem solving Process involved in finding a solution to a problem. Many animals routinely solve problems of locomotion, food finding, and shelter through trial and error. efforts, a positive relationship emerged between the amount of student discussion and individual achievement (Stevens & Slavin, 1995; Wilczenski, Bontrager, Ventrone, & Correia, 2001). The goal of this article is to understand the nature of peer interaction in an electronic environment. Before exploring computer-mediated communication, this article explores the factors that influence the general productivity of groups. An understanding of these considerations will be useful when contemplating the use of electronic tools for instruction. Research shows that structuring interaction and teaching skills for interaction influence the success of collaboration (Fuchs et al., 2000; Gabriele & Montecinos, 2001). STRUCTURING INTERACTION Although collaboration is known to promote reflection and articulation articulation In phonetics, the shaping of the vocal tract (larynx, pharynx, and oral and nasal cavities) by positioning mobile organs (such as the tongue) relative to other parts that may be rigid (such as the hard palate) and thus modifying the airstream to produce speech , outcomes of collaborative learning are influenced by several factors. These factors lead to different interactions among learners. Structures that encourage collaboration involve positive interdependence in·ter·de·pen·dent adj. Mutually dependent: "Today, the mission of one institution can be accomplished only by recognizing that it lives in an interdependent world with conflicts and overlapping interests" , whereby individuals achieve goals only if workgroup members also achieve goals and individuals achieve goals only when workgroup members share resources and roles. In fact, advocates of peer learning have developed a variety of techniques for improving patterns of interaction and participation, such as (a) assigning students specific reciprocal Bilateral; two-sided; mutual; interchanged. Reciprocal obligations are duties owed by one individual to another and vice versa. A reciprocal contract is one in which the parties enter into mutual agreements. roles (O'Donnell, 1996), (b) providing incentives for group members to cooperate and become accountable for their own and others' learning (Slavin, 1996), and (c) providing students specific instructions on what they should discuss (Gillies & Ashman, 1998). A strategy that teachers could use to structure peer learning or peer tutoring A peer tutor is anyone who is of a similar status as the person being tutored. In an undergraduate institution this would usually be other undergraduates, as distinct from the graduate students who may be teaching the writing classes. is King's (2002) technique called Guided Reciprocal Peer Questioning that engages learners in high-level cognitive processing. In this approach, students pose questions to each other beginning with stems such as "What does ... mean?" and "What do you think would happen if...." In general, King's strategic questioning discourse pattern teaches students how to engage in appropriate and effective discourse during problem-solving, specifically, how to ask for and get useful information, plans, and strategies for solving the problem. Giving students specific feedback on their behaviors and asking them to reflect on how the group is behaving with respect to specific skills can have good results as well. Johnson, Johnson, Stanne, and Garibaldi (1990) showed that a classroom instruction model in which the teacher provides extensive feedback on cooperative behavior showed more cooperative behavior and less competitive behavior than students learning in an instructional model in which the teacher did not provide process feedback. TRAINING FOR INTERACTION Teaching students skills for interaction can also lead to more productive interaction. It is generally accepted that a high level of member interaction indicates overall success of the discussion. In fact, Hogan hogan Dwelling of the Navajo Indians of Arizona and New Mexico. The hogan is roughly circular and constructed usually of logs, which are stepped in gradually to create a domed roof. (2000) found that an important element of sustained productive dialogue in peer groups appeared to be the sharing of queries that served to articulate and clarify what the group did not know. In writing instruction, there is evidence that coaching students to provide peers with useful feedback improves the amount and quality of student interaction (Zhu, 1998). Moreover, students need to be instructed on how to be effective tutors in the peer tutoring approach to collaborative learning. Person and Graesser (1999) examined cross-age tutoring in the mathematics domain and found that unstructured interactions are flawed flaw 1 n. 1. An imperfection, often concealed, that impairs soundness: a flaw in the crystal that caused it to shatter. See Synonyms at blemish. 2. in many ways. They found that normal, unskilled tutors lack the training and experience to accommodate the needs of particular students. Students who tutored followed a limited and unsophisticated script, and students who received tutoring did not use active learning strategies that would have enabled them to take better advantage of available help. This section showed that structuring interaction and training students to interact improves group productivity and helps sustain discourse that leads to positive learning outcomes. In a survey conducted by Antil, Jenkins, Wayne, and Vadasy (1998), 93% of teachers (n=85) subscribed to collaborative learning to achieve both academic and social learning goals, structured tasks for positive interdependence, and taught students skills for working in small groups. However, the majority of teachers failed to tie individual accountability to group goals. Although teachers have generally been successful in implementing collaborative learning in the classroom, with the advent of CMC, educators need to understand how peer interaction is different in an electronic setting. Before discussing how computer use supports interaction, the next section describes the benefits and limitations of CMC. Communication in an Electronic Setting Thus far, this article has not focused on a specific setting for collaborative learning. The approaches to peer interaction and skills needed for successful interaction could be implemented in an electronic setting as well as a face-to-face setting. For example, students could communicate online using structured interaction methods such as Guided Reciprocal Peer Questioning (King, 2002). Peer tutoring could also be implemented online. With the recent popularity of distance learning, it is important to explore peer interaction in an electronic setting. The capacity of CMC to support collaborative work has led to an appreciation of CMC as a powerful characteristic of a learning environment. FEATURES OF CMC How does CMC change the nature of communication? CMC can be used to dramatically alter interaction patterns, connecting learners and their teachers with peers, collaborators, and experts from around the world. Findings from research indicate that, when the electronic social spaces are structured, CMC enables students and teachers to dramatically change their roles and interaction patterns (Cooney, 1988; Kang, 1998), and to extend the learning dialogue beyond the traditional boundaries of the classroom. In these learning environments, teachers become coaches and mentors who guide student dialogue, while allowing them to build critical-thinking and collaborative learning skills by reflecting, responding, socializing, and challenging their peers online. Electronic interaction changes communication by removing nonverbal non·ver·bal adj. 1. Being other than verbal; not involving words: nonverbal communication. 2. Involving little use of language: a nonverbal intelligence test. social cues, and by forcing students to reflect upon and challenge their own and others' comments in more depth than in face-to-face classroom discussions (Angeli & Cunningham, 1998; Chong, 1998). Other benefits of CMC include the following (Sherry, 2000): * it can be archived so that the instructor has a record of the kind and amount of participation by students; * it enables prompt feedback by the instructor or peer learners; and * it establishes a social environment that can help motivate the learner and create a forum within which ideas can be tested and applied. CMC has also been found to provide a certain degree of anonymity In anonymity networks (e.g. Tor, Crowds, Tarzan, etc.) it is important to be able to measure quantitatively the guarantee that is given to the system. The degree of anonymity . CMC encourages
experimentation, sharing of early ideas, increased and more distributed
participation, and collaborative thinking (Ruberg, Moore, & Taylor,
1995).
<BR><BR> Some studies found that because social cues are filtered out of
computer-mediated communication, CMC participants did not achieve the
social bonding and <a onmouseover=) interpersonal relationships This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims.Please help Wikipedia by adding references. See the for details. This article has been tagged since September 2007. found in face-to-face groups. Berge (1997) pointed out that because computer-based conferencing See teleconferencing. is low in social cues (e.g., body language, tone, and pitch) as compared with face-to-face interaction, it can set the stage for more uninhibited uninhibited /un·in·hib·it·ed/ (un?in-hib´i-ted) free from usual constraints; not subject to normal inhibitory mechanisms. behavior on the part of students than would occur in face-to-face conversations as well as misunderstandings and misinterpretations. In addition, the anonymity that was shown to be beneficial in some situations may be detrimental det·ri·men·tal adj. Causing damage or harm; injurious. det  ri·men in others. Some
research on CMC exchanges found that this anonymity was linked to
hostile, anti-social behavior most frequently characterized char·ac·ter·ize tr.v. character·ized, character·iz·ing, character·iz·es 1. To describe the qualities or peculiarities of: characterized the warden as ruthless. 2. as flaming flaming - flame (Spears & Lea, 1994). Forms of CMC have additional limitations (Ruberg et al., 1995), such as the following: * the writing and typing skills necessary for participation; * the presence of a time lag which may cause the discussion to become sluggish; and * the potential of confusion because of the presence of multiple, simultaneous threads of discussion. With an understanding of the attributes of CMC, this article explores factors that influence whether or not students use CMC to participate in class discussions. FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE USE OF CMC Few studies have linked CMC use to achievement due to the numerous factors that influence interaction with CMC tools. However, successful use does not necessarily lead to successful interaction. What are the factors that influence whether people decide to communicate electronically? The following sections describe student characteristics and CMC environment characteristics, which have been identified to impact computer-mediated communication activity (Fishman, 1999). Student Characteristics What are the effects of individual learner characteristics on CMC use? In a study of students in high school classrooms, Fishman (1996) found that the variation in the use of CMC tools was significantly related to a number of individual learner characteristics, including experience with computers, social influence of peers and teachers, parental education, gender, and communication apprehension The seizure and arrest of a person who is suspected of having committed a crime. A reasonable belief of the possibility of imminent injury or death at the hands of another that justifies a person acting in Self-Defense against the potential attack. . He also found that self-perception of "artistic or musical" proficiency pro·fi·cien·cy n. pl. pro·fi·cien·cies The state or quality of being proficient; competence. Noun 1. proficiency - the quality of having great facility and competence was marginally related to the use of e-mail and CMC tools. Other factors include the individual's personal mix of self-efficacy or confidence in using new tools and the perceived value in facilitating the performance of an assigned task. In a four-year study of student e-mail use, Sherry (1998) found that there was a strong, persistent relationship between "clear payoff and value" in using e-mail and student perceptions of self-reported skills with CMC tools. She also found the following important concerns among students who were using CMC tools to participate in class conversations: * users need to see some intrinsic value Intrinsic Value 1. The value of a company or an asset based on an underlying perception of the value. 2. For call options, this is the difference between the underlying stock's price and the strike price. in learning new technologies; * finding a voice and having something to say is a concern, especially not knowing what content to put into public messages; and * the types of dialogue carried out in class-related electronic conferences must be consistent with one's lifestyle and self-identity. CMC Environment Characteristics What factors in the CMC environment influence use? Tolmie and Boyle (2000) found that the size of the workgroup, knowledge of other participants, and a need for the system influenced its use in a college environment. The immediate conversation engaged students and allowed them to interact readily. Authentic topics and anonymity also increase participation in discussion. In a middle-school setting, Hsi (1997) researched online discussion topics in a science forum and found that students responded best to questions that connected science to practical problems such as selecting a pan for baking baking: see cooking. baking Process of cooking by dry heat, especially in an oven. Baked products include bread, cookies, pies, and pastries. brownies. Authentic topics can anchor the discussion, engendering a sustained CMC discussion. CMC environments should aim to support discussions that are sustained, have broad participation, and focus on class topics (Guzdial & Turns, 2000). Another factor that improves online discussion participation is the opportunity to make anonymous comments (Hsi, 1997; Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1992). The structure of the task also affects CMC use. Ruberg et al. (1995), found that successful use of CMC activities requires a classroom social environment that encourages peer interaction and a selection of structured tasks. Structured tasks can help students with the confusion of the multiple threads of discussion. Structuring and managing the discussion threads See threaded discussion. keeps track of the relationships between student comments and allows students to develop a sense of the overall discussion. The college students in the study described the CMC activities as having had an impact on their learning through the following features: (a) increased access to the instructor, (b) increased involvement with course content, and (c) related concepts, and more opportunities to think in class and demonstrate what they had learned. Finally, ease of use of the technology is a factor that influences CMC use. An example of a CMC tool designed to support effective discussions is CAMILE (Guzdial et al., 1998). The tool contains discussion threads and persistent notes (notes which remain available all the time) to help students understand the flow of the discussion. CaMILE provides note classifications that prompt and structure student discussion. Research comparing CaMILE discussions to newsgroup newsgroup Internet forum for discussion of specific subjects. Newsgroups are organized into subjects (e.g., automobiles); each typically has several subgroups (e.g., classic cars, Formula One racing cars). discussions found that CaMILE discussions endured longer than newsgroup discussions (Guzdial & Turns, 2000). With an understanding of the merits and shortcomings of CMC and the student and environment characteristics that influence CMC use, this article can now explore how CMC influences learning. EFFECTS OF CMC ON LEARNING This article has discussed factors that influence successful peer interaction, not specific to either face-to-face or electronic discourse. Additional factors influence learning in a CMC environment. CMC provides affordances for learning yet also creates problems not present in a conventional classroom setting. This section explores learning from CMC, learning with CMC, and how CMC addresses problems with face-to-face discourse. CMC-based activities offer an alternative pattern of interaction that differs from face-to-face patterns in several ways. CMC tools are assumed to have the potential to enhance the effectiveness of peer learning interactions. Beyond generalized gen·er·al·ized adj. 1. Involving an entire organ, as when an epileptic seizure involves all parts of the brain. 2. Not specifically adapted to a particular environment or function; not specialized. 3. descriptions of social and interactive features of CMC, there are features of the written exchanges that support learning and collaboration; however, there has been little research investigating how the discourse contributes to learning in an electronic environment. Learning From CMC What do students learn from communicating electronically? In a study of synchronous Refers to events that are synchronized, or coordinated, in time. For example, the interval between transmitting A and B is the same as between B and C, and completing the current operation before the next one is started are considered synchronous operations. Contrast with asynchronous. electronic discussion in a networked college classroom, Colomb and Simutis (1996) found that the computer helped create an atmosphere in which students could observe and learn from others' performance, to study messages before responding to them, to think, and to compose com·pose v. com·posed, com·pos·ing, com·pos·es v.tr. 1. To make up the constituent parts of; constitute or form: their own contribution. In an eighth-grade classroom, Hoadley and Linn linn n. Scots 1. A waterfall. 2. A steep ravine. [Scottish Gaelic linne, pool, waterfall.] (2000) found that students participating in CMC reported that they can read comments without also wondering what to say next and that students can compose their contributions more carefully. These studies suggest that networked environments provide students more time and inclination inclination, in astronomy, the angle of intersection between two planes, one of which is an orbital plane. The inclination of the plane of the moon's orbit is 5°9' with respect to the plane of the ecliptic (the plane of the earth's orbit around the sun). to pause and thoughtfully reflect on the ongoing discussion before making a contribution. In another study of CMC, students had to learn to attend to contextualization Contextualization of language use Contextualization is a word first used in sociolinguistics to refer to the use of language and discourse to signal relevant aspects of an interactional or communicative situation. cues that mark or frame the meaning of their exchanges and anticipate the next steps in the conversation (Auer & di Luzio, 1992). The students also had to learn to contextualize con·tex·tu·al·ize tr.v. con·tex·tu·al·ized, con·tex·tu·al·iz·ing, con·tex·tu·al·iz·es To place (a word or idea, for example) in a particular context. messages that were not in a chronological chron·o·log·i·cal also chron·o·log·ic adj. 1. Arranged in order of time of occurrence. 2. Relating to or in accordance with chronology. order as is the case with oral conversation. In contextualizing electronic messages into a coherent, logical order, students are acquiring invaluable inference (logic) inference - The logical process by which new facts are derived from known facts by the application of inference rules. See also symbolic inference, type inference. strategies. Learning With CMC How does the use of CMC affect learning? In a study that investigated quality of learning in computer-supported discussions, Newman, Johnson, Cochrane, and Webb (1996) performed a classroom experiment in which college students spent half their seminars face-to-face, and half their seminars conferencing over a computer system. They found deeper critical thinking at all stages in computer conferencing See chat, videoconferencing and data conferencing. than in face-to-face discussions, but with the smallest difference at the stage where the most creativity is required, which included the generation of new ideas "New Ideas" is the debut single by Scottish New Wave/Indie Rock act The Dykeenies. It was first released as a Double A-side with "Will It Happen Tonight?" on July 17, 2006. The band also recorded a video for the track. . The researchers found that the computer supported the more structured, less creative stages of the problem-solving process. They concluded that asynchronous Refers to events that are not synchronized, or coordinated, in time. The following are considered asynchronous operations. The interval between transmitting A and B is not the same as between B and C. The ability to initiate a transmission at either end. CMC can support the critical thinking process better than face-to-face discussions. Although this section has attempted to describe studies of computer-mediated communication that lead to positive learning outcomes, qualitative data is mainly from interviews with students and teachers, and there is little quantitative data to show learning gains from electronic discourse. Addressing Problems With Face-to-Face Discourse Before discussing design principles, this article addresses problems with peer interaction in face-to-face settings that CMC might solve or new problems that CMC might create. What problems with peer discourse, as reviewed in the first section of this article, might CMC help solve? Computer-based learning environments can provide authentic environments for problem-solving and support a high level of interactivity. CMC could also encourage more metacognition Metacognition refers to thinking about cognition (memory, perception, calculation, association, etc.) itself or to think/reason about one's own thinking. Types of knowledge ; it could dissuade TO DISSUADE, crim. law. To induce a person not to do an act. 2. To dissuade a witness from giving evidence against a person indicted, is an indictable offence at common law. Hawk. B. 1, c. 2 1, s. 1 5. students from responding rashly rash 1 adj. rash·er, rash·est 1. Characterized by or resulting from ill-considered haste or boldness. See Synonyms at reckless. 2. Archaic Quick in producing a strong or marked effect. to comments instead of thoughtfully reflecting on the dialogue to situate sit·u·ate tr.v. sit·u·at·ed, sit·u·at·ing, sit·u·ates 1. To place in a certain spot or position; locate. 2. To place under particular circumstances or in a given condition. adj. their response. In fact, research shows that virtual groups are more task-oriented compared to face-to-face groups (Chidambaram, 1996; Jonassen & Kwon, 2001). In addition, archiving peer interaction is a valuable tool for learning. What problems might CMC create? Certainly the requirement of typing skills is a barrier to pervasive use of CMC. The slowness of the network may cause frustration for users (Ruberg et al., 1995) and lack of social cues can limit the development of trust and community (Berge, 1997). Anonymity may also encourage students to act inappropriately. There has been little research investigating how discourse contributes to learning in an electronic environment due to the numerous factors that influence interaction with CMC tools. Nevertheless, the next section discusses design principles for CMC environments to facilitate productive interaction between peers. DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR CMC ENVIRONMENTS The benefits of collaboration have mainly been studied in face-to-face situations where high-level talk between students has been found to be important for promoting learning. New advanced technology-enriched environments can also support high-level talk where interaction takes place over the network. The type of medium groups use to communicate shapes the quality of the talk (Hewett, 2000). Therefore, it is possible to design a learning environment to support productive interaction based on what is known about how to support learning. CMC may not be an improvement over face-to-face collaboration, but CMC environments should be designed so they support peer discourse that leads to learning. Designing refers to systematic choices and use of procedures, methods, or devices to bring about effective and productive learning. The following sections link back to the work reviewed throughout this article as they discuss design principles involving structuring interaction and scaffolding collaboration. Structuring Interaction In the classroom, the teacher needs to provide structure for any CMC activity. Participation in discussion increases with more structured tasks (Ruberg et. al., 1995) and authentic tasks (Hsi, 1997). Sherry (1998) found that students need to have something to say to participate in CMC discussions. These factors suggest that the curriculum in which CMC use is situated is a primary concern in the development of design principles for the CMC environment. After all, social constructivism constructivism, Russian art movement founded c.1913 by Vladimir Tatlin, related to the movement known as suprematism. After 1916 the brothers Naum Gabo and Antoine Pevsner gave new impetus to Tatlin's art of purely abstract (although politically intended) posits that learning cannot be divorced from the context of a problem. Tasks should have realworld relevance, presenting a single complex task to be completed over a sustained period of time and allowing access to expert thinking and modeling. In addition, the instructor needs to have a reason for choosing to use CMC instead of face-to-face communication for class discussions. The possibilities are numerous, but the instructor needs to explain the process and procedure clearly, since a need for the system influences its use (Tolmie & Boyle, 2000). Students need structure, purpose, and authentic tasks that will engage them in electronic discourse. Strategies such as questioning, role assignment, and interdependent assessment are specific ways of structuring interaction. For instance, cooperative learning cooperative learning Education theory A student-centered teaching strategy in which heterogeneous groups of students work to achieve a common academic goal–eg, completing a case study or a evaluating a QC problem. See Problem-based learning, Socratic method. strategies such as Guided Reciprocal Peer Questioning (King, 2002) give students the opportunity to help each other gain important cognitive skills cognitive skill Psychology Any of a number of acquired skills that reflect an individual's ability to think; CSs include verbal and spatial abilities, and have a significant hereditary component and could be implemented online. Establishing and assigning different roles such as leader and liaison could offer further structure. The role of each student in the group might change during the process, but it is necessary to establish certain responsibilities to facilitate the problem-solving process and to ensure that students learn to work in collaborative situations in which each is responsible for their own work (Cohen, 1994). After all, the distribution of roles requires strategies of communication and negotiation. In addition, positive interdependence can be encouraged by providing incentives for group members to cooperate and become accountable for their own and others' learning (Slavin, 1996). A specific method is to assign an individual facilitation Facilitation The process of providing a market for a security. Normally, this refers to bids and offers made for large blocks of securities, such as those traded by institutions. score to each group member based on his or her participation, and then to give each member the same group facilitation score, which is the sum of the individual scores (Wilczenski et al., 2001). Facilitating awareness of others also helps structure interaction. Uninhibited behavior and misinterpretations can occur in online discussions because CMC is low in social cues (Berge, 1997), creating a need for more contextualized information in the environment. Similarly, Tolmie and Boyle (2000) found that knowledge of other participants increases use of CMC. CSILE CSILE Computer-Supported Intentional Learning Environment (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1992) includes a feature with which students can examine how connected their notes are to other people's notes and investigate the degree to which they have contributed to the collective work of the class. Facilitating awareness of other participants in the environment could be attained by providing photos of students, information about the time and content of their most recent contribution, and perhaps even personal information such as class schedule and birthday. The personal information would give students lead-ins to casual conversations to build rapport The former name of device management software from Wyse Technology, San Jose, CA (www.wyse.com) that is designed to centrally control up to 100,000+ devices, including Wyse thin clients (see Winterm), Palm, PocketPC and other mobile devices. so they would feel more comfortable and confident in the environment. Belonging to a community encourages and supports interaction. This section has offered multiple ways in which the environment or the teacher can structure peer interaction, from employing interdependent assessment to facilitating awareness of group members. The next section suggests way to train students to interact, which was also previously shown to improve outcomes of collaboration. Training for Interaction Networked learning environments have the potential to enhance the effectiveness of peer interactions, by coaching peers as they work on problems and critique other students' solutions. A human or computer coach can moderate the group discussion by structuring the group process, giving advice when needed, and promoting deepening deep·en tr. & intr.v. deep·ened, deep·en·ing, deep·ens To make or become deep or deeper. Noun 1. deepening - a process of becoming deeper and more profound of understanding. The moderator moderator - A person, or small group of people, who manages a moderated mailing list or Usenet newsgroup. Moderators are responsible for determining which email submissions are passed on to the list or newsgroup. must address collaboration issues such as distribution of roles among students, equality of participation, and reaching a common understanding. Teaching students to be considerate con·sid·er·ate adj. 1. Having or marked by regard for the needs or feelings of others. See Synonyms at thoughtful. 2. Characterized by careful thought; deliberate. of each other in a CMC environment also requires training in "netiquette (NETwork etIQUETTE) Proper manners when conferencing between two or more users on an online service or the Internet. Emily Post may not have told you to curtail your cussing via modem, but netiquette has been established to remind you that profanity is not in good form over ," or proper behavior in an online forum. By moderating discussion, the coach is training the students to interact and make valuable contributions. Providing students with feedback about the group process is also necessary for effective interaction (Johnson et al., 1990). Students should be given specific feedback on their behaviors and asked to reflect on how the group is behaving. If one member is not contributing enough or one member is assuming most of the responsibility for accomplishing the task, the group should be made aware of the situation. Moreover, if the group is taking too long to reach a consensus, they should also be made aware of the situation. Modeling desirable behaviors is another effective technique of training students. Specifically, students need to know how to ask questions that evoke e·voke tr.v. e·voked, e·vok·ing, e·vokes 1. To summon or call forth: actions that evoked our mistrust. 2. elaborated explanations (Webb, 1991) and even how to behave in a social situation (Johnson & Johnson, 1994). By participating in the interaction, the coach could also model skills for tutoring and the behaviors of an effective helper and an effective help-seeker. Finally, the coach could reflect on his or her participation in the group and summarize sum·ma·rize intr. & tr.v. sum·ma·rized, sum·ma·riz·ing, sum·ma·riz·es To make a summary or make a summary of. sum what the group has learned. In summary, the coach could train students to be productive participants in an electronic environment and gradually withdraw the support while the students grow as reflective learners who understand the principles of a knowledge-building community. Moderating, providing feedback, and modeling desirable behaviors for interaction are all strategies that teachers or computer coaches could use in facilitating productive collaboration in an electronic environment. Combined with a task that is structured, electronic discourse could be a powerful method of instruction. CONCLUSION Discourse is a powerful tool for cognitive development. Beginning with social constructivist theory of language, this article moves from an exploration of communication in a face-to-face setting to an exploration of communication in an electronic setting. CMC solves some problems of face-to-face discourse for learning but faces its own challenges involving use and learning. Few studies have investigated how discourse contributes to learning in an electronic environment. With this rationale for the design principles, this article offers suggestions to improve the use and effectiveness of CMC environments. First, structuring the interaction with questioning strategies, role assignment, authentic tasks, and interdependent assessment may improve use and communication. Facilitating awareness by displaying contextualized information such as participation rates and student photos could also lead to improved CMC use. Next, training students for interaction would improve the use and effectiveness of CMC environments for learning. Training peers by modeling effective behaviors, providing feedback about group processes and coaching interaction would encourage productive discussion, These design principles illustrate that there are various ways in which teachers and technology can facilitate collaborative skills that lead to effective and productive learning. References Angeli, C., & Cunningham, D.J. (1998). Bubble dialogue: Tools for supporting literacy and mind. In C.J. Bonk & K.S. King (Eds.), Electronic collaborators: Learner-centered technologies for literacy, apprenticeship apprenticeship, system of learning a craft or trade from one who is engaged in it and of paying for the instruction by a given number of years of work. The practice was known in ancient Babylon, Egypt, Greece, and Rome, as well as in modern Europe and to some extent , and discourse (pp. 81-101). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. 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