Supervising school counselors-in-training: a guide for field supervisors.

Practicing professional school counselors often are asked to supervise school counselors-in-training without the benefit of training in supervision or an awareness of the various clinical experiences. The purpose of this article is to outline the clinical experiences, supervisory stages, roles supervisors play, and useful strategies for directing the supervisory process. Furthermore, trainees often express disappointment and frustration when they are not provided with the opportunity to perform activities that reflect counselor performance in a comprehensive, developmental school counselor program. This article includes suggestions for providing supervisory activities within the American School Counselor Association's National Model.

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   I was asked to be a supervisor for a practicum
   student and I wasn't sure what I was supposed
   to do.

   It has been so many years since I received my
   training in school counseling, that when I was
   asked to serve as a supervisor for an internship
   student, at first I refused. I was trained under
   a different model of school counseling, and I
   was afraid that I would be viewed as "out of
   touch" with school counseling today. After I
   thought about it, I realized that this would be
   an opportunity for me to learn about the
   trends in the profession and I agreed to serve
   as a supervisor.

Practicing, experienced professional school counselors commonly make statements such as those above when they are asked to serve as supervisors for students training for the profession of school counseling. Two carefully guarded professional secrets are the nonexistence of a common set of supervisory expectations, tasks, and responsibilities provided to all school counselor trainees (Henderson, 1994; Nelson & Johnson, 1999) and that supervisors, for the most part, have not received instruction in supervisory practices for students training for the profession of school counseling (Nelson & Johnson).

Despite limited knowledge of the supervisory process, school counselors do provide supervision to graduate students without the advantage of training (Nelson & Johnson, 1999). This lack of training is exacerbated in that literature assists little in the way of providing practicing school counselors with practical information on the "how to" of supervision (Getz, 1999; Goodyear & Bernard, 1998; Henderson, 1994). Although counselor education programs provide information about supervision, training varies among institutions, and each trainee brings to the school setting a different set of concerns and expectations that requires different learning strategies. The purpose of this article is to provide a basic understanding of supervisory roles, expectations, stages, and techniques to assist school counselor supervisors as they provide clinical training in a school setting.

SUPERVISION AND THE CLINICAL EXPERIENCES

The Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) provides guidelines for institutions training individuals for the profession of school counseling. These standards include supervised opportunities that are identified as the "most critical experience elements in the program" (CACREP, 2003). These experiences are obtained through the practicum and internship courses, and because each requires different training, the supervisor is to be clear as to the supervision course in which the student trainee is enrolled. The main purpose of the practicum is to develop and refine counseling skills, while the internship provides the school counselor-in-training with the opportunity to perform a variety of school counselor-related activities. Additional information on CACREP can be found at http://www.counseling.org/cacrep/ default.htm.

Many school counseling programs are not CACREP accredited, leaving state regulations and/or the individual counselor education programs to determine content and clinical experiences (Holloway, as cited in Bradley & Fiorini, 1999). A consistent set of expectations is needed to guide school supervisors as they carry the burden of determining what experiences are appropriate for the trainee, while making certain that quality assistance is provided without shortchanging the K-12 students.

WHAT IS SUPERVISION?

Supervision is broadly defined as a process in which an experienced member of the profession mentors and provides quality experiences, instruction, and feedback to a novice member of the profession (Bernard & Goodyear, 1992). Supervision is designed to (a) improve the trainee's clinical skills, (b) enhance professional development, (c) monitor the quality of client services, (d) serve as a gatekeeper to the profession, (e) provide opportunities in learning about the school milieu (Henderson, 1994), and (f) evaluate the performance level of the supervisee (Getz, 1999).

Although supervision provides the opportunity to put theory into practice, it is not always a straightforward process. Today's school counselor trainees are taught leadership skills in a comprehensive, developmental model but often are supervised by practicing school counselors performing under a traditional pupil personnel model. The program supervisor is faced with the ethical dilemma of locating a supervisor who has experience and training in supervision as well as the ability to provide supervision in a transformed school counseling program. Consequently, newly trained graduates often are "faced with the challenge of entering a changing profession not yet fully operational under the transformed models to which they have been introduced" (Jackson et al., 2002, p. 177). A paradigm shift in services is required.

Furthermore, if a professional school counselor is not available, supervision is commonly provided by a building principal or another mental health professional, such as a school psychologist, without training in the role and competencies of a school counselor. Considering the barriers surrounding a quality supervisory experience, the questions remain: "How does a trainee receive appropriate experiences?" and "What are the expectations of a supervisor?"

THE SUPERVISION DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES

Supervision begins with the identification of an appropriate mentor including consideration of similar beliefs, willingness, and the ability to work with supervisees of varying levels of ability. A personal perception of how one "fits" into the school system is guided by personal principles as to how a school counseling program is maintained and delivered (Jackson et al., 2002). Therefore, it may be difficult to locate a supervisor with a similar philosophy of school counseling (Roberts, Morotti, Herrick, & Tilbury, 2001). Professional socialization and development begins during training and continues during employment as a professional school counselor. Common trainees' concerns, the supervisor's role in managing these concerns, and typical supervisor strategies are conveyed in the following section.

Beginning the Supervisory Process

Some counselor education programs require the school counselor-in-training to make the initial contact with a potential school counselor supervisor for clinical experience. Other programs require that the program supervisor make the first contact. Trainees who have been instructed in the value and importance of a comprehensive, developmental school counseling program will fail to apply these concepts if they are not reinforced and practiced during supervision (Jackson et al., 2002). A discussion between the supervisors and trainee that includes the necessary expectations, and how the trainee can perform tasks in a school counseling program that has not been completely transformed to a developmental model, is included in a written contract and signed by all parties. A written contract guides and describes the necessary expectations and forms the evaluation foundation.

The contract. A written, jointly collaborated contract that identifies goals, activities for reaching the goals, and evaluative methods provides a road map of expectations. Because each trainee brings to the experience different developmental levels of skill, anxiety, and learning styles (Hart, 1994) that warrant various training strategies (Furr & Carroll, 2003), an individual contract reflecting areas of personal needs is important. It is not unusual for students without a background in education to need more extensive instruction on the school milieu and structure, issues surrounding special education, how to work with teachers, and classroom management. Following are common areas to discuss for inclusion in the contract:

1. The frequency of meetings--when they will occur, where, how often, how long, and who will be present

2. Assessment criteria that include how the supervisee skills will be assessed, and whether audiotapes, videotapes, or live supervision will be part of the evaluative process

3. A statement regarding confidential student information being shared with the supervisors

4. Handling emergency situations, such as when a K-12 student reveals to the trainee a situation of possible harm to self or others

5. Guidelines for handling situations when the school supervisor is absent

6. The number of visitations with the program supervisor, and the information that will be shared

7. Activities that reflect advocacy, leadership, collaboration, counseling, and assessment.

The supervisor's role. During the initial stage, the supervisor serves in the dual roles of teacher and counselor. Because trainees report mixed feelings of anxiety, excitement, and uncertainty when first engaging in activities, providing training strategies that will produce successful results, with a minimum of challenge and confrontation by the school supervisor, sets the foundation for a positive experience (Nelson & Johnson, 1999). Inviting the trainee to reflect on his or her personal philosophy, beliefs, and assumptions will assist in viewing one's compatibility to the profession of school counseling. The supervisor assists in the learning process through facilitative questioning. Typical types of questions include the following:

1. What happened?

2. What were your feelings?

3. How did you react?

4. What did you do?

5. What did you learn about yourself?

6. What did you learn from the situation?

7. What were your assumptions in entering this situation? How have these assumptions been changed?

The Middle Stages

The trainee's feelings fluctuate between self-doubt and self-confidence, which are reflected in various levels of dependent and independent behaviors. Success promotes autonomy and decision making, whereas new experiences often bring about anxiety with a need for more directed learning.

The supervisor's role. As tasks are mastered, trainees express less need for structure. In turn, the supervisor will fluctuate between the roles of teacher and counselor depending on the confidence level and experiences of the supervisee (Nelson & Johnson, 1999). Behavior that is confronted and challenged often promotes growth (Bernard & Goodyear, 1992; Goldberg, 2000). For example, a supervisee who designs and delivers a guidance lesson for elementary-aged students may feel frustrated with the behavior of the students in the classroom. The supervisor could take on the teacher role by instructing and modeling classroom management techniques. Or, the counselor role could be assumed by asking the trainee to reflect on his or her personal thoughts and feelings that may have interfered with the guidance lesson.

The Later Stages

As the trainee gains confidence, the supervisor adapts more of a consultant role. In this role, the trainees are encouraged to think for themselves, problem-solve, and assume even more autonomy. For instance, a supervisee may wish to lead a teacher in-service to teach the signs and symptoms of youth suicidal ideation. A consultation with the supervisor on the logistics and content of the session may provide the needed support. Supervisor roles also will change with situations that are unfamiliar or problematic to the trainee. As an example, if a trainee is reluctant to work with a non-English-speaking parent, the supervisor may take on a teacher role by reviewing cultural issues and consultative skills with the trainee prior to the meeting. Or, the supervisor in a counseling role may ask the trainee questions such as, "If you are apprehensive, ask yourself what is making you feel like that?" or, "Put yourself in the place of the parent. What might she be feeling? Thinking?"

As the clinical experience reaches a conclusion, the supervisor assists the trainee to integrate experiences, and to determine areas in which additional training and direction are needed. Identifying and implementing useful supervisory strategies at all stages that will best enhance the trainees' affective, cognitive, and behavioral experiences is sometimes problematical for supervisors. Unfortunately, literature doesn't assist with this concern (Spence, Wilson, Kavanagh, Strong, & Worrall, 2001). Yet, when the various tasks are categorized into clinical, developmental, and administrative supervision domains, strategies for training and assessment are easier to identify and manage (Gysbers & Henderson, 2000).

SUPERVISORY STRATEGIES

Clinical Supervision

Clinical supervision for school counselor trainees aims to improve direct service delivery and unique skills, particularly in the areas of guidance curricula, counseling, consultation, and referral. Live observations, modeling, case studies, role-playing, video or audio observations, case presentations, and technology provide quality training and feedback.

Live observations. School supervisors and administrators sometimes express concern about K-12 students receiving quality services when trainees provide counseling and guidance services without the benefit of completed coursework and credentials. In one school, administrative concerns were allayed when the school supervisor "sat in" on every counseling session conducted by the trainee. Although this was time-consuming, there were several benefits. Not only did the trainee receive experience in which immediate feedback was provided, but the counselee had the benefit of working with a new individual in a counseling setting where the quality of service was not compromised due to the trainee's inexperience.

Modeling behaviors. When the trainee has not received training in an identified skill, the supervisor can model this competency while the trainee observes. Following the demonstration the trainee can perform a guided rehearsal accompanied by supervisor feedback. For example, the supervisor may present an ethical dilemma, model professional behavior, discuss the situation with the trainee, and then provide a similar dilemma for the supervisee to demonstrate what he or she learned.

Case study. Trainees learn from analyzing a case study. When presented with a typical school counseling situation, the trainee is able to conceptualize how he or she might approach the particular case through assessment, intervention procedures, theory, and evaluative strategies. The supervisor is able to serve as a teacher in instructing the trainee about the approach that was selected, the considerations that led to the selected methodology, and unexpected factors that influenced the case (Spence et al., 2001).

Technology. With increased job demands, it is often difficult for the trainee and site supervisor to meet face-to-face. As personal computers are more readily available in offices, e-mail provides an opportunity for the trainee and supervisor to connect. Problematic cases may be presented confidentially through e-mail in which several supervisees and their individual supervisors are involved. A case might include the following elements: (a) a brief description of the counselee, (b) the presenting problem, (c) counselor trainee observations, (d) interventions applied, and (e) any concerns about the case in the form of questions (Graf & Stebnicki, 2002). Although this technology may limit the feedback and knowledge acquired from face-to-face interaction, this type of communication could stimulate reflective insight. For instance, feedback through technology gives the added benefit of time and space to contemplate, evaluate, and assimilate the feedback without the pressure of a response in the immediate present.

In a study by Myrick and Sabella (1995), trainees used e-mail to request assistance from their supervisors and peers with cases that were problematic. Through this form of communication, peers and supervisors were able to express an opinion about the presented case and a learning forum was created as different perspectives were offered.

Audio/videotapes. Audio and videotapes are a common method for enhancing counseling skills. The supervisor can ask the trainee to implement a skill (e.g., open questioning, confrontation, terminating) and then evaluate the skill by listening to the tape or viewing the video. Or, if the trainee wishes to obtain feedback on a particular technique, the tape can be cued to this particular intervention rather than the supervisor listening to or viewing the entire session (Borders & Leddick, 1987).

Role-playing. Role-playing is a valuable instructional strategy (Furr & Carroll, 2003) that provides a transfer of learning in several ways: (a) The trainee can observe the supervisor perform an intervention with a K-12 student, and then the trainee can perform the intervention with the supervisor taking on the role of a K-12 student; (b) the trainee can take the perspective of a student he or she counseled previously and then process the perceived thoughts, behaviors, and feelings of the counselee while the supervisor role-plays the counselor; (c) the supervisor can take on the role of K-12 students with various concerns while the trainee practices counseling skills; or (d) the trainee can role-play a K-12 student from a previous, troublesome session for debriefing and suggestions (Borders & Leddick, 1987). As the school counselor-in-training feels a sense of accomplishment, these achievements may serve as stepping-stones for attempting other tasks when given the added assurance that the supervisor will serve as a buttress when unanticipated circumstances occur.

Developmental Supervision

Developmental supervision evaluates both the affective and cognitive learning that occurs (Furr & Carroll, 2003). It includes the opportunity to discuss the choice and application of a particular theoretical model (Gysbers & Henderson, 2000). Methods for stimulating personal and professional growth include (a) self-reflection through interpersonal process recall and (b) journals.

Interpersonal process recall. Examining covert thoughts and feelings from a previously taped counseling session facilitates self-awareness. This strategy is used in a consultative, supportive environment with the following procedures (Kagan, 1975, 1983):

1. The supervisor reviews the entire counseling tape or selects portions of the tape and summarizes the content in the presence of the trainee.

2. The tape is played. Either the trainee or supervisor may stop the tape at any point, and when the tape is stopped the trainee is asked to recall thoughts, feelings, and behaviors expressed during the selected scenario.

3. The supervisor helps the trainee to gain insight by asking any of the following questions:

* Is there anything you wish you had asked the student?

* If you had asked that question, how do you think the student would have reacted?

* Is there anything you would have done differently if you had the chance?

* What did you want the student to think of you?

* Did this student remind you of anyone in your life?

These recall sessions are provided in a nonjudgmental, educational atmosphere without negative consequences. Although personal growth is an important, fundamental aspect of the supervisory experience, trainees often express concern that by bringing up personal issues, there is a risk of negatively impacting their evaluation (Spence et al., 2001) or even their continuation in the program.

Journals. Trainees may be asked to keep a journal summarizing the training activities including their thoughts, behaviors, and feelings. Following the clinical experience, the trainee could use the journal to recognize his or her achievement in various areas. Self-growth may result when the school counselor-in-training reviews the journal entries, tapes, or supervision experiences and contemplates the changes that have occurred throughout the process (Borders & Leddick, 1987).

Despite the experiences that are received through clinical and developmental supervision, school counseling supervision is not complete without an understanding of professional behavior and role management. These experiences are provided through administrative supervision.

Administrative Supervision

Professional school counselors work with a diverse group of individuals in numerous capacities. Administrative responsibilities include understanding the school administrative structure, maintaining records, and demonstrating a positive work ethic.

Understanding the school environment. Trainees often feel uncomfortable beginning their clinical experiences in an unfamiliar school. In turn, it is difficult for K-12 students to seek counseling or for faculty to entrust students to an unfamiliar person whose training level is unknown. Introducing the trainee to the students and faculty with an explanation of why this individual is in the school, what issues the school counselor-in-training is qualified to handle, when the trainee can be contacted, where he or she will be located, and clear guidelines for class dismissal provides explicit parameters of expectations and roles. Furthermore, collaboration among the school supervisor, trainee, and building principal contributes to an understanding of the trainee-school partnership (Jackson et al., 2002). When administrators support the purpose, contributions, and educational experiences of trainees, and articulate this support to the entire faculty and staff, the groundwork is laid for a quality clinical experience.

Maintaining records. Taped counseling sessions with K-12 students require parental/guardian permission. An informed consent form--including a brief explanation surrounding the purposes of taping counseling sessions, a statement of confidentiality, and a disclosure statement that summarizes the supervisee's educational training and experiences--assists parents or guardians in making the decision to give consent for counseling.

Record keeping is required in supervision. Different programs have varied requirements regarding the materials to be documented and maintained. All programs, however, have a system in which supervisees document their hours and contacts. One responsibility of the supervisor is to verify that the trainee is completing the records accurately and in a timely manner. A written evaluation form is required at the end of the clinical experience by both the school supervisor and the trainee. The school supervisor provides an assessment of the trainee's performance in the areas designated in the contract. Likewise, the trainee provides feedback on the experiences received and the quality of the supervision at the site.

Demonstrating a positive work ethic. Professional school counselors maintain a positive work ethic through punctuality, attendance, and the quality of services they provide.

Finally, administrative supervision provides an opportunity to engage in program delivery that supports the educational mission of the school. The American School Counselor Association (ASCA) endorses a preventative, developmental school counselor program that integrates the school curriculum in the academic, career, and personal/social domains (ASCA, 2003). Although it is clear that the ASCA National Standards are for K-12 students, it is the professional school counselor who performs identified activities within the ASCA National Model components to facilitate student achievement.

School counseling trainees often express disappointment and frustration when classroom concepts are not carried over to the supervisory experience. Too often school counselor trainees engage in tasks that reflect a traditional responsive, pupil personnel model, and they receive little experience in a comprehensive, developmental model. To resolve this dilemma, supervisors working in programs that have not made the transformation to a developmental model can select the delivery systems and tasks that readily fit into a comprehensive model and assign appropriate tasks to the trainee. Not only will these tasks integrate classroom knowledge, they also will provide a learning experience for the trainee to adapt and implement the strategies when employed as a school counselor.

The ASCA National Model contains delivery system, accountability, foundation, and management components. The following provides a supervisory activity for each of these components as an example of how a school counselor-in-training can gain experience in a comprehensive, developmental school counseling program.

Delivery System

Academic Standard B of the National Model states, "Students will complete school with the academic preparation essential to choose from a wide range of substantial post-secondary options, including college" (ASCA, 2003). The competency A:B1.0 is to "improve learning," with the associated indicator, A:B1.6, to "use knowledge of learning styles to positively influence school performance" (ASCA). The school counselor-in-training may be given the opportunity to reach this indicator by administering and interpreting a learning style inventory and providing guidance for taking notes and studying using the identified learning style.

Accountability

School counselors have the responsibility to assess program and personal performance so that stakeholders can make decisions regarding program viability. The trainee may be provided with the opportunity to design an assessment instrument that will measure the impact of a social-skills group. Or, the trainee may be required to document the numbers of students seen and common concerns and to summarize the results for the school administrator.

Foundation

The foundation of the school counseling program identifies what K-12 students will know and do as a result of participating in a school counseling program (ASCA, 2003). The various foundation elements include a mission statement to convey the program purpose, a rationale that guides the program objectives, and student competencies. The supervisor may provide the trainee with the opportunity to analyze the current school counselor mission statement and rationale with the purpose of determining whether the school counseling program continues to reflect the purpose and vision. Or, the trainee may have the opportunity to crosswalk the ASCA standards with the school competencies and state standards.

Management

The management component addresses when activities will occur and how students are positively impacted as a result of participation in a school counseling program. The trainee can be given the opportunity to investigate grant opportunities and write a grant proposal for funding. Additionally, the trainee may be given the task of providing an in-service for teachers on an identified topic.

SUMMARY

Supervisory experiences are one of the most important aspects in learning about the fundamental role of the school counselor. Unfortunately, supervisors of school counselor trainees often are unprepared in the art and science of supervision. When trainees are asked to engage in new activities, they often experience anxiety, but this may be allayed as the supervisor performs various supervisory roles. When the supervisor takes on the role of a teacher and counselor through directives and support, the trainee is able to gain confidence, and as the trainee gains more experience, the supervisor assumes more of a consultant role. The supervisor role alternates according to the needs of the trainee.

Throughout the supervisory stages, the supervisor provides clinical, developmental, and administrative supervision. Clinical supervision is designed to improve counseling skills through live observations, whereas personal growth is fostered through developmental supervision. Finally, a greater understanding of the work ethics that are essential for success within the educational milieu is provided through administrative supervision. Too often a gap occurs between the classroom concepts and the actual work tasks that school counselors-in-training are provided. Therefore, supervisors, as key gatekeepers to the profession, are instrumental links between the educational program and future work settings, and it is incumbent upon school counselor program supervisors to place students in settings that reflect a transformed school counseling program with practicing professional school counselors trained in supervision.

References

American School Counselor Association. (2003). The ASCA national model: A framework for school counseling programs. Alexandria, VA: Author.

Bernard, J. M., & Goodyear, R. K. (1992). Fundamentals of clinical supervision. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Borders, L. D., & Leddick, G. R. (1987). Handbook of counseling supervision. Alexandria, VA: American Association for Counseling and Development.

Bradley, C., & Fiorini, J. (1999). Evaluation of counseling practicum: National study of programs accredited by CACREP. Counselor Education and Supervision, 39, 110-119.

Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs. (2003). The 2001 standards. Retrieved July 8, 2004, from http://www.counseling.org/ cacrep/2001standards700.htm

Furr, S. R., & Carroll, J. J. (2003). Critical incidents in student counselor development. Journal of Counseling & Development, 81, 483-489.

Getz, H. G. (1999). Assessment of clinical supervisor competencies. Journal of Counseling & Development, 77, 491-497.

Goldberg, A. (2000, June). Counselors as supervisors: Learning the craft. Presentation at ASCA conference, Cherry Hill, NJ.

Goodyear, R. K., & Bernard, J. M. (1998). Clinical supervision: Lessons from the literature. Counselor Education and Supervision, 38, 6-22.

Graf, N. M., & Stebnicki, M. A. (2002). Using e-mail for clinical supervision in practicum: A qualitative analysis. Journal of Rehabilitation, 68, 41-49.

Gysbers, N., & Henderson, P. (2000). Developing and managing your school guidance program (3rd ed.). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.

Hart, G. M. (1994). Strategies and methods of effective supervision. Greensboro, NC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Counseling and Student Services. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED372341)

Henderson, P. (1994). Supervision of school counselors. Greensboro, NC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Counseling and Student Services. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED372353)

Jackson, C. M., Snow, B. M., Boes, S. R., Phillips, P. L., Stanarad, R. P., Painter, L. C., et al. (2002). Inducting the transformed school counselor into the profession. Theory Into Practice, 41, 177-185.

Kagan, N. (1975). Interpersonal process recall: A method of influencing human interaction. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University, Office of Medical Education Research and Development.

Kagan, N. (1983). Classroom to client issues in supervision. The Counseling Psychologist, 11, 69-72.

Myrick, R. D., & Sabella, R. A. (1995). Cyberspace: A new place for counselor supervision. Elementary School Guidance and Counseling, 30, 35-44.

Nelson, M. D., & Johnson, P. (1999). School counselors as supervisors: An integrated approach for supervising school counseling interns. Counselor Education & Supervision, 39, 89-100.

Roberts, W. B., Morotti, A. A., Herrick, C., & Tilbury, A. (2001). Site supervisors of professional school counseling interns: Suggested guidelines. Professional School Counseling, 4, 208-215.

Spence, S. H., Wilson, J., Kavanagh, D., Strong, J., & Worrall, L. (2001). Clinical supervision in four mental health professions: A review of the evidence. Behavior Change, 18, 135-155.

Jeannine R. Studer is an associate professor of Counselor Education, Department of Educational Psychology and Counseling, University of Tennessee, Knoxville. E-mail: [e-mail]