Substance abuse prevention in sixth grade: the effect of a prevention program on adolescents' risk and protective factors.Abstract: This study investigated the effectiveness of the Prevention Dimensions Program (PDP (1) (Plasma Display Panel) See plasma display. (2) (Policy Decision Point) See COPS and XACML. (3) (Programmed Data P ) (Utah Education Network The Utah Education Network (UEN) is a not-for-profit consortium of higher and public education, libraries, state government and business. UEN’s high speed computer network connects Utah colleges and universities as well as the state’s school districts and libraries. , 2002), a K-12 Utah-safe and drug-free schools and communities prevention plan using a pretest/posttest, experimental verses control group design. One hundred fifty sixth-grade students from eight Salt Lake City classrooms participated in this study. Results indicated that protective factors increased for the high SES classrooms receiving the PDP and decreased for the low SES classrooms receiving the PDP. Results for risk factors indicated an increase during the PDP for these sixth grade classrooms, and the increase in risk factors was greatest in the low SES classrooms. ********** Research on the prevention of substance abuse has focused on identifying the particular program components that are responsible for the positive or negative effects on a given group of program participants (Donaldson, Graham, Piccinin, and Hansen Han·sen , Gerhard Henrik Armauer 1746-1845. Norwegian physician and bacteriologist who discovered (1869) the leprosy bacillus. , 1995). This is particularly important in substance abuse prevention, because the results have helped to maximize the impact and effectiveness of such programs. The development of effective substance abuse prevention programs for youths has led to the use of multi-component, health behavioral behavioral pertaining to behavior. behavioral disorders see vice. behavioral seizure see psychomotor seizure. change programs that are based on field tested theories which are aimed at reducing risk and increasing protective factors (Coie et. al, 1993). The results of one study suggested that the components that have produced the most consistent positive effects are derived from a variety of models of social influence (Donaldson et. al, 1996). Botvin and Botvin (1997) and Tobler and Stratton (1997) found that using models of social influence is superior to using other common approaches such as scaring the participants, improving their self-esteem self-esteem Sense of personal worth and ability that is fundamental to an individual's identity. Family relationships during childhood are believed to play a crucial role in its development. , or disseminating dis·sem·i·nate v. dis·sem·i·nat·ed, dis·sem·i·nat·ing, dis·sem·i·nates v.tr. 1. To scatter widely, as in sowing seed. 2. general information to them. Additional studies cited, in the Urban Health Initiative (2000), indicated that the most promising multi-component substance abuse prevention programs for youths, especially those at high risk, include a school component, an after-school component, and a parent-involvement component. All of these components have the common goal of increasing protective factors and decreasing risk factors in the areas of the family, the community, the school, and the individual. A good example of this is the Boys and Girls boys and girls mercurialisannua. Clubs and School Collaborations' Substance Abuse Prevention Programs (Tobler and Stratton, 2001). This two-year program has a school component called SMART (Skills Mastery and Resistance Training) Teachers, an after-school component called SMART Kids, and a parent-involvement component called SMART Parents. Each component is designed to reduce specific risk factors in the children's school, family, community and personal environments, and also to enhance protective factors that could buffer the children from exposure to these risks. Tobler and Stratton (2001) found that the SMART Kids component was the most effective of the three SMART program components. They also found that die SMART Teachers component greatly enhanced the effectiveness of the SMART Kids component because of the approval shown by teachers toward the efforts of the participants. The SMART Parents component was the least effective of the three components, partly because of the difficulty in eliciting parent involvement. Despite this latter finding, the importance of parent and family influence on substance abuse prevention in children should not be minimized even though peers become more influential than parents as children enter their adolescent ad·o·les·cent adj. Of, relating to, or undergoing adolescence. n. A young person who has undergone puberty but who has not reached full maturity; a teenager. years (Urban Heath heath, tract of open land heath, tract of open land characterized by a few scattered trees, abundant moss cover, and numerous low shrubs, principally of the heath family (see heath, in botany). Initiative, 2000). Valkahali (2001) lent credence to this when he acknowledged that a family's influence can have a tremendous impact on an adolescent's protection against substance use and abuse. He also stated that "... adolescents who reported having a good relationship with parents were found to have a lower level of substance abuse (2001, p.36)." The Prevention Dimensions Program (PDP), a Utah safe and drug free sixth grade curriculum, was chosen for the present study because it incorporates a multi-component approach which includes components designed for teachers, students and the family. The PDP is based on Hawkins and Catalano's Seattle Social Development Project which suggests that students who received a comprehensive curriculum in the elementary grades reported lower rates of alcohol use and delinquency delinquency Criminal behaviour carried out by a juvenile. Young males make up the bulk of the delinquent population (about 80% in the U.S.) in all countries in which the behaviour is reported. (Hawkins, Catalano, Kosterman, Abbott, and Hill, 1999). A longitudinal study longitudinal study a chronological study in epidemiology which attempts to establish a relationship between an antecedent cause and a subsequent effect. See also cohort study. of the Seattle Social Development Project on Sexual Behavior sexual behavior A person's sexual practices–ie, whether he/she engages in heterosexual or homosexual activity. See Sex life, Sexual life. indicated that the long term impact of a theory-based program like the PDP, that includes promotion of academic success, social competence and bonding to school during the elementary grades, can prevent risky sexual practices and adverse health consequences in early adulthood (Lonczak, Abbott, Hawkins, Kosterman and Catalano, 2002). An overriding (programming) overriding - Redefining in a child class a method or function member defined in a parent class. Not to be confused with "overloading". focus of the PDP sixth grade curriculum is its emphasis on increasing protection for sixth grade students and decreasing risk factors for sixth grade students in this group of children who were together for this study. Models of social influence and behavior change Behavior change refers to any transformation or modification of human behavior. Such changes can occur intentionally, through behavior modification, without intention, or change rapidly in situations of mental illness. strategies are incorporated throughout the PDP curriculum. The purpose of this study was first, to determine if the implementation of the PDP would result in an increase in total protection for sixth grade participants, which combines all protective factor scales in the Utah safe and drug free schools survey instrument, and a decrease in total risk among sixth-grade participants, which combines all risk factor scales in the Utah safe and drug free schools survey instrument (Social Research Institute, 1998). Second, the study attempted was implemented to determine if the implementation of the PDP would increase protection and decrease risk in the areas of family, community, school, and personal factors for sixth-grade students. Third, to determine if the impact of the PDP would be affected by whether students are in low SES schools or high SES schools. METHODS DESIGN This study used a pretest/posttest control group design in which there were two major group classifications: (a) control and (b) experimental. The experimental group received the PDP and die control group did not. The control and experimental groups consisted of four classrooms. Two classrooms per school were used to represent each group with the exception of Low SES control groups, which consisted of one classroom per school, thus bringing the total number of schools involved in the project to five. The control group was comprised of two high SES (socioeconomic status socioeconomic status, n the position of an individual on a socio-economic scale that measures such factors as education, income, type of occupation, place of residence, and in some populations, ethnicity and religion. ) and two low SES classrooms. Likewise, the experimental group was comprised of two high SES and two low SES classrooms. Dividing groups by SES status was deemed important, because of the existence of prior research pointing to the impact that SES has on adolescent decision-making decision-making, n the process of coming to a conclusion or making a judgment. decision-making, evidence-based, n a type of informal decision-making that combines clinical expertise, patient concerns, and evidence gathered from and adjustment (Boyle & Offord, 1990). This SES categorization was based on location of the schools and the number of free or reduced-cost lunches. Classrooms were matched for similarities in location and population demographics The attributes of people in a particular geographic area. Used for marketing purposes, population, ethnic origins, religion, spoken language, income and age range are examples of demographic data. . SAMPLE A convenience sample of eight sixth-grade elementary classrooms were selected from five Salt Lake City schools based on their participation in the PDP. Of the 260 students selected by classroom, 190 obtained parental consent Parental consent laws (also known as parental involvement or parental notification laws) in some countries require that one or more parents consent to or be notified before their minor child can legally engage in certain activities. (73%) to participate in the study. Due to general absence, participant attrition Attrition The reduction in staff and employees in a company through normal means, such as retirement and resignation. This is natural in any business and industry. Notes: , and screening out some of those students who answered dishonestly through the use of repeated and fictitious Based upon a fabrication or pretense. A fictitious name is an assumed name that differs from an individual's actual name. A fictitious action is a lawsuit brought not for the adjudication of an actual controversy between the parties but merely for the purpose of questions built into the survey instrument, the final number of students who took both the pretest pre·test n. 1. a. A preliminary test administered to determine a student's baseline knowledge or preparedness for an educational experience or course of study. b. A test taken for practice. 2. and posttest post·test n. A test given after a lesson or a period of instruction to determine what the students have learned. survey was 150 (58%). Eighty nine students were in the experimental group and 61 were in the control group. MEASURES The impact of the PDP was evaluated by assessing community, family, school, and individual risk and protective factors, including drug use behavior. The Utah Division of Substance Abuse Prevention Needs Assessment Survey (Social Research Institute, 1998) was employed. The survey was developed through the combined efforts of six states (Kansas, Maine Maine, ship Maine, U.S. battleship destroyed (Feb. 15, 1898) in Havana harbor by an explosion that killed 260 men. The incident helped precipitate the Spanish-American War (Apr., 1898). Commanded by Capt. Charles Sigsbee, the ship had been sent (Jan. , Oregon Oregon, city, United States Oregon, city (1990 pop. 18,334), Lucas co., NW Ohio, a suburb adjacent to Toledo, on Lake Erie; inc. 1958. It is a port with railroad-owned and -operated docks. The city has industries producing oil, chemicals, and metal products. , South Carolina South Carolina, state of the SE United States. It is bordered by North Carolina (N), the Atlantic Ocean (SE), and Georgia (SW). Facts and Figures Area, 31,055 sq mi (80,432 sq km). Pop. (2000) 4,012,012, a 15. , Utah and Washington) and the Social Development Research Group at the University of Washington. The development of this survey was a federal Center for Substance Abuse Prevention The Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (CSAP) is an agency of the United States government under the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) and the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). (CSAP CSAP Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (formerly: Office for Substance Abuse Prevention) CSAP Colorado Student Assessment Program CSAP Colorado State Assessment Program CSAP Core Service Access Point ) funded project. This survey instrument was developed to measure eighteen risk factors in the categories of family, community, school and personal, and it also measures 10 protective factors in these same four areas. However, some risk factors were large enough to require more than one scale to measure. As a result, there are 27 separate risk factor scales and 10 protective factor scales (Social Research Institute, 1998). Approximately four survey items measure each factor (Social Research Institute, 1998). In total, the instrument has 204 items. Items are scored on a 4-point scale, with 1 = low total protection and 4 = high total protection, on the 10 protective factor scales and 1 = low total risk and 4 = high total risk on the 27 risk factor scales. Scale scores are obtained by computing computing - computer the mean scores for all the included items. Items on the scales reflect factors in the school, community, family and personal levels. Students can easily complete the questionnaire in one class period. The reliability of the scales has been measured with an average Cronbach alpha of .79 (Social Research Institute, 1998). In order to use this survey in the Salt Lake area, modifications to the demographic section were needed to make the information more relevant for students in Utah schools. Specific changes included, where students lived and the students' religious affiliation. Location was changed to reflect the Salt Lake School District, and the religious affiliation of Mormon (Latter-day Saint Lat·ter-day Saint n. See Mormon. Noun 1. Latter-Day Saint - a member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints Mormon ) was added to reflect the religious differences in Salt Lake City (Social Research Institute, 1998). PROCEDURES Prior to the implementation of the PDP, the pretest questionnaire was administered to all the students involved in the study. Counselors, in each of the five schools, were instructed to read the questions with each of the students and to follow the guidelines guidelines, n.pl a set of standards, criteria, or specifications to be used or followed in the performance of certain tasks. at each testing time. Students were told that the questionnaire was designed to assist in improving the PDP. The control group and the experimental group received identical directions for completing the questionnaire. The PDP was implemented between September 1998 and May 1999. PDP meeting times varied between schools and classrooms; however, the experimental groups met 1 hour per week for 36 weeks. The counselors assigned as·sign tr.v. as·signed, as·sign·ing, as·signs 1. To set apart for a particular purpose; designate: assigned a day for the inspection. 2. to that particular school presented the sessions. Counselors receive yearly training from die Utah State Office of Education on the Prevention Dimensions Program. Three counselors delivered the PDP curriculum to the experimental group, which was comprised of four classrooms. On the last day of the PDP, both the experimental and control groups again completed the questionnaire using the same procedures as outlined above for administration of the pretest. Posttests were conducted in mid May 1999. At this time, all data were collected, and the subjects' pretest and posttest questionnaires were matched by their dates of birth. INTERVENTION A procedure used in a lawsuit by which the court allows a third person who was not originally a party to the suit to become a party, by joining with either the plaintiff or the defendant. The PDP (Utah Education Network, 2002) is a universal program for K-12 students. The program was originally designed in 1985, and its most recent modifications, which were designed to address the risk and protective factors model, were developed in 1993. PDP focuses on enhancing academic performance mid strengthening students bonding to school by specifically focusing on self esteem and achievement through activities addressed in the curriculum. These activities reduce the likelihood of children engaging in high-risk behaviors high-risk behavior Public health A lifestyle activity that places a person at ↑ risk of suffering a particular condition. See Safe sex practices. , which is accomplished through a number of activities and lesson plans included in the sixth-grade curriculum. The curriculum includes models that focus on positive peer relationships and an educational component designed to address issues related to drug, alcohol, and tobacco use. Some common components of PDP include use of an approach intended to enhance protective factors and decrease risk factors. ANALYSIS Data collected on die 150 subjects were analyzed an·a·lyze tr.v. an·a·lyzed, an·a·lyz·ing, an·a·lyz·es 1. To examine methodically by separating into parts and studying their interrelations. 2. Chemistry To make a chemical analysis of. 3. using the following strategies. Descriptive statistics descriptive statistics see statistics. were generated in the areas of gender, race/ethnicity and religious preference. Independent t-tests were used to examine pre-test differences. Repeated measures analysis of covariance Covariance A measure of the degree to which returns on two risky assets move in tandem. A positive covariance means that asset returns move together. A negative covariance means returns vary inversely. (ANCOVA ANCOVA Analysis of Covariance ) was used to examine differences between the experimental and control groups, and also between the high SES and low SES groups on total risk and total protection in the areas of family, community, school, and personal factors. The pretest scores were used as the covariate covariate predictors during the allocation of experimental units in a randomized design. . Finally, paired t-tests were conducted on the scale scores to detect pre-test to post-test change in levels of risk and protection in the high SES subjects, low SES subjects, experimental subjects, and control subjects. RESULTS DEMOGRAPHICS Examination of the demographics for die sample ([N.bar] = 150) revealed consistent similarities between the experimental and control groups. The sample was 48.7% male and 51.3% female. Of the 150 subjects, 79.4% were 11 years old. Eighty-two percent reported Anglo American, not of Hispanic Hispanic Multiculture A person of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central or South American, or other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of race Social medicine Any of 17 major Latino subcultures, concentrated in California, Texas, Chicago, Miam, NY, and elsewhere origin, with 8.7% reporting Mexican American/Puerto Rican or Chicano descent descent, in anthropology, method of classifying individuals in terms of their various kinship connections. Matrilineal and patrilineal descent refer to the mother's or father's sib (or other group), respectively. and 4% Black or African American African American Multiculture A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. See Race. . Other minority groups totaled 5.3% of the sample. This sample consisted of 69 students who were in the high SES population and 81 who were in the low SES population. When asked about religious preference, 78% reported Latter-day Saint (LDS LDs See: Liquidated damages or Mormon), 12% reported Catholic, and 10% reported Jewish, Protestant, no preference, or other (Table 1). PRETEST DIFFERENCES AMONG SCHOOLS Among all schools involved in this study, total protection scores fluctuated by SES, which was expected based on location of the two schools on the high SES east side of Salt Lake City compared with the two schools on the low SES west side of Salt Lake City (Table 2). A significant difference in the area of total protection was detected between the high SES control group and the high SES experimental group ([p.bar] < .05). A significant difference in protection on the pretest was also detected between the low SES and high SES groups ([p.bar] < .05). These differences consistently indicated lower protection in schools from low SES neighborhoods. In the area of total risk, scores fluctuated mostly by SES and were consistent with trends detected in the area of total protection (Table 3). Additionally, a significant difference was detected between the high SES experimental group and the high SES control group ([p.bar] < .05). Other significant differences in total risk were seen between the low SES experimental and low SES control groups ([p.bar] < .05). As a result of these pretest findings, a repeated measures ANCOVA was used to determine if there was a pretest/posttest change. Means were adjusted for the pretest scores. TOTAL PROTECTION GROUP DIFFERENCES Total protection, as measured by items reflecting school, community, family, and personal protection factors, was examined for differences based on group status and SES. Examination of the ANCOVA results on total protection indicated significant main and interaction effects for group and SES ([p.bar] < .05). Paired t-tests revealed that the experimental and control groups both experienced a significant decrease in protection ([p.bar] < .05) (Table 4). When the combined high and low SES groups were compared, no significant changes were detected from the pre-test to the post-test. When the four groups were examined separately, paired t-tests detected a drop in total protection for three out of the four groups ([p.bar] < .05). Only the high SES experimental group scores did not decrease. The only sub area of total protection that saw significant change over the course of the study was that of school protection. SCHOOL PROTECTION GROUP DIFFERENCES Examination of the ANCOVA results on school protection indicated significant main and interaction effects for group and SES ([p.bar] < .05). Paired t-tests revealed that the experimental group experienced a significant decrease in protection ([p.bar] < .05) (Table 4) while the control group saw no significant change. Analyses by SES indicated that the low SES groups experienced a significant decrease in protection ([p.bar] < .05) and that the high SES groups experienced a significant increase in protection ([p.bar] < .05). Upon examination as four different groups, the low SES control group and the low SES experimental group experienced a significant decrease in protection ([p.bar] < .05). The high SES experimental group experienced a significant increase in school protection ([p.bar] < .05), while the high SES control group scores revealed no significant change. TOTAL RISK GROUP DIFFERENCES Total risk, as measured by items reflecting school, community, family, and personal risk factors, was examined for differences based on group status and SES. The ANCOVA results on total risk indicated a significant main effect for SES ([p.bar] < .05). Paired t-tests indicated that only the low SES control group scores increased significantly in risk ([p.bar] < .05) (Table 5). Two sub areas of total risk changed significantly over the course of the study. These sub-areas were community and personal risk. COMMUNITY RISK DIFFERENCES The results for the ANCOVA for community risk between group and SES indicated that the main effect of SES was significant ([p.bar] < .05) and so was the interaction between SES and group status ([p.bar] < .05). Paired t-tests revealed no significant overall group or SES changes in community risk from the pretest to the posttest. However, a significant increase was experienced by the low SES control group ([p.bar] < .05) (Table 5). PERSONAL RISK DIFFERENCES ANCOVA results for personal risk indicated main effects for group and SES ([p.bar] < .05). Paired t-tests revealed a significant increase in risk for the control group ([p.bar] < .05) (Table 5). No overall significant SES changes were indicated. Although, when the four groups were examined separately, significant increases in personal risk were detected for all four groups ([p.bar] < .05). DISCUSSION This study examined the impact of the PDP, based on three different criteria. 1) Did the implementation of the PDP result in an increase in total protection and protection in the areas of family, community, school, and personal factors among sixth-grade students receiving the PDP? 2) Did the implementation of the PDP decrease in total risk and risk in the areas of family, community, school, and personal factors for sixth-grade students receiving the PDP? 3) Was the impact, if any, affected by whether students were in low SES schools or high SES schools? PROTECTION The PDP did not increase total protection when the overall control and experimental groups were examined. In fact, both groups decreased significantly in total protection. When SES was considered, only the high SES experimental group did not decrease significantly in total protection. The outcomes were somewhat similar in the sub area of school protection, the only sub area of total protection that had significant change. The experimental group experienced a significant drop in school protection scores, whereas the control group experienced no significant change. The high SES experimental group experienced a significant increase in school protection factors, while the high SES control group saw no significant increase in protection. Both the low SES groups experienced significant drops in school protection. Taken together, these results indicated that the PDP had a differential effect on protection, based on whether students were in a high SES or low SES classroom. The high SES children experienced a negative impact, saw no change, or did see some improvement in protection as a result of the PDP; whereas, the low SES children were consistently negatively impacted. The PDP may have negatively impacted low SES classrooms by addressing certain topics that made students in these schools more aware of the dangers they faced. RISK The PDP did not decrease total risk when the overall control and experimental groups were examined. The only significant change in total risk was an increase among the low SES control group. The sub area of community risk followed the same pattern as total risk. Only the low SES control group experienced a significant increase in risk. The changes observed for personal risk factors were different from those observed with total and community risk. The control group increased in personal risk between the pretest and posttest; whereas, all SES sub groups experienced significant increases in personal risk. Based on the results, experimental subjects saw fewer increases in risk than did the control subjects. Therefore, there is some evidence of a moderate buffering effect on those who received the PDP. Further, the PDP also had a differential effect on protection based on whether students were in a high SES or low SES classroom. These findings, taken as a whole seem to indicate that it might be more beneficial to have a targeted program that addresses the unique concerns of high risk groups rather than just a blanket approach (Kumpfer, 1999). However, there are some methodological limitations to this study. For instance, between the pretest and the posttest, 40 students dropped out of the study (21%). Unfortunately, research consistently shows that students who drop out or who are most frequently absent fall into the highest category for high-risk behaviors. Efforts should concentrate on these students in future studies of this type, since their needs may be the greatest. In addition, the small sample size in this study lacked statistical power resulting in statistically non-significant results in cases where the differences may have been real. Next, the data obtained in this particular study was self-reported. It is likely that some students were dishonest in their answers and could not be detected or screened out by the repeated and fictitious questions built into the survey instrument. Further, the analyzed sample was 78% Latter Day Saint A Latter Day Saint is an adherent of the Latter Day Saint movement, a group of denominations tracing their heritage to the teachings of Joseph Smith, Jr. and the Church of Christ he organized in 1830. . Affiliates of the LDS religion often adhere to adhere to verb 1. follow, keep, maintain, respect, observe, be true, fulfil, obey, heed, keep to, abide by, be loyal, mind, be constant, be faithful 2. stringent health-related guidelines, which include an avoidance of alcohol and illicit drugs illicit drug Street drug, see there . This may have contributed to a restriction of range in scores, making obtaining statistically significant results more difficult. The other limitations have to do with selection bias. First, the classrooms were not randomly selected. Second, the use of the Institutional Review Board parental permission consent forms in this study may have 'selected out' students who are different from the study participants. For example, those students who were unable to gain permission to complete the questionnaire may have crone crone see crock. from households in which reading comprehension Reading comprehension can be defined as the level of understanding of a passage or text. For normal reading rates (around 200-220 words per minute) an acceptable level of comprehension is above 75%. was not at the level of the University Institutional Review Board statement. Therefore, the results of the study may not generalize generalize /gen·er·al·ize/ (-iz) 1. to spread throughout the body, as when local disease becomes systemic. 2. to form a general principle; to reason inductively. to all students in Salt Lake City sixth-grade classrooms. The results of this study, despite the limitations, suggest that future research should involve screening risk and protective factors before beginning any type of intervention. Any such prevention program should be developed to target each population's greatest risk and protective factors. Other suggestions for research within prevention programs should involve the assessment of saturation saturation, of an organic compound saturation, of an organic compound, condition occurring when its molecules contain no double or triple bonds and thus cannot undergo addition reactions. levels of program delivery for different groups of children within the same program. This type of research may help to ascertain the appropriate amount of PDP for students from low SES districts. Additional research, which would involve tracking current students' risk and protective factors longitudinally lon·gi·tu·di·nal adj. 1. a. Of or relating to longitude or length: a longitudinal reckoning by the navigator; made longitudinal measurements of the hull. b. as they enter seventh grade and beyond, should also be considered. This could also be done in conjunction with levels of program saturation. Doing so would provide a more complete and long-term assessment of the PDP.
Table 1. Demographics of Sixth Grade Respondents.
High SES Low SES
Experimental Control Experimental Control
N % N % N % N %
Gender
Male 18 48.6 17 53.1 24 46.2 14 48.3
Female 19 51.4 15 46.9 28 53.8 15 51.7
Race/Ethnicity
White 32 86.5 28 87.5 43 82.7 20 69.0
Other 5 13.5 4 12.5 9 17.3 9 31.0
Religious
Preference
LDS 35 94.6 29 90.6 30 57.7 23 79.3
Catholic 0 0.0 1 3.2 15 28.8 2 6.9
Other 2 5.4 2 6.2 7 13.5 4 13.8
Total 37 24.7 32 21.3 52 34.7 29 19.3
Total
N %
Gender
Male 73 48.7
Female 77 51.3
Race/Ethnicity
White 123 82.0
Other 27 16.0
Religious
Preference
LDS 117 78.0
Catholic 18 12.0
Other 15 10.0
Total 150 100.0
Note. SES = socioeconomic environment.
Table 2. Group Pretest Means for Total Protection by Group and
Socioeconomic Environmental Status (SES).
Difference
between
Experimental Control Exp. and
(n = 89) (n = 61) Control Means
M SD M SD P
High SES 3.36 .224 3.08 .372 0.27 *
Low SES 2.86 .367 2.89 .366 0.03
Difference between
High and Low
SES Means 0.50 * 0.19 *
* p <.05
Table 3. Group Pretest Means for Total Risk by Group and Socioeconomic
Environmental Status (SES).
Difference
between
Experimental Control Exp. and
(n = 89) (n = 61) Control Means
M SD M SD P
High SES 1.20 .229 .163 0.10 *
Low SES 1.62 .327 1.49 .244 0.13 *
Difference between
High and Low
ES Means 0.41 * 0.16 *
* p <.05
Table 4. Group Pretest and Posttest Means for Total and School
Protection by Group and Socioeconomic Environment Status (SES).
Pretest
Experimental Control Total within
(n = 89) (n = 61) SES
M SD M SD M
Total Protection
High SES 3.36 .224 3.08 .372 3.23
Low SES 2.86 .367 2.89 .366 2.87
Total within group 3.07 .401 2.99 .379
School Protection
High SES 2.97 .370 2.93 .368 2.95
Low SES 2.97 .453 2.58 .353 2.82
Total within group 2.97 .418 2.76 .399 2.88 *
Posttest
Experimental Control Total within
(n = 89) (n = 61) SES
M SD M SD M
Total Protection
High SES 3.36 .204 3.05 * .272 3.21
Low SES 2.72 * .285 2.78 * .253 2.74
Total within group 2.99 * .408 2.92 * .295
School Protection
High SES 3.24 * .344 2.94 .287 3.10
Low SES 2.62 * .358 2.51 * .334 2.58 *
Total within group .467 2.74 .377
* indicates a significant change from the pretest to the posttest,
p <.05.
Table 5. Group Pretest and Posttest Means for Total, Community and
School Risk by Group and Socioeconomic Environment Status (SES).
Pretest
Experimental Control Total within
(n = 89) (n = 61) SES
M SD M SD M
Total Risk
High SES 1.20 .229 1.30 .163 1.25
Low SES 1.62 .327 1.49 .244 1.57
Total within group 1.44 .356 1.39 .223
Community Risk
High SES 1.49 .401 1.64 .348 1.56
Low SES 2.09 .555 1.70 .424 1.94
Total within group 1.87 .496 1.66 .316
Personal Risk
High SES 0.95 .262 1.04 .217 0.99
Low SES 1.33 .326 1.29 .266 1.32
Total within group 1.17 .392 1.16 .271
Posttest
Experimental Control Total within
(n = 89) (n = 61) SES
M SD M SD M
Total Risk
High SES 1.25 .205 1.37 .263 1.31
Low SES 1.69 .384 1.64 * .347 1.67
Total within group 1.51 .313 1.49 .328
Community Risk
High SES 1.51 .380 1.65 .316 1.57
Low SES 2.22 .484 1.95 * .367 2.12 *
Total within group 1.92 .566 1.79 .370
Personal Risk
High SES 1.00 * .197 1.12 * .172 1.06
Low SES 1.35 * .326 1.40 * .227 1.37
Total within group 1.20 .327 1.25 * .242
* indicates a significant change from the pretest to the posttest,
p <.05.
REFERENCES Botvin, G. J., Botvin E. M. (1997). School based programs. In J. Lowinson, P. Ruiz, R.B. Millman, J. Langrod (Eds.), Substance abuse A comprehensive textbook textbook Informatics A treatise on a particular subject. See Bible. (third edition). Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins. Boyle, M.H., & Offord, D.R. (1990) Primary Prevention of Conduct Disorder Conduct Disorder Definition Conduct disorder (CD) is a behavioral and emotional disorder of childhood and adolescence. Children with conduct disorder act inappropriately, infringe on the rights of others, and violate the behavioral expectations of : Issues and Prospects. Journal of the American Academy The American Academy in Berlin is a non-partisan academic institution in Berlin. It was founded in September 1994 by a group of prominent Americans and Germans, among them Richard Holbrooke, Henry Kissinger, Richard von Weizsäcker, Fritz Stern and Otto Graf Lambsdorff and opened in of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry A branch of psychiatry that specialises in work with children, teenagers, and their families. History An important antecedent to the specialty of child psychiatry was the social recognition of childhood as a special phase of life with its own developmental stages, starting with , 29:, 227-233. Coie, J.D., Watt, N.F. West, S.G., Hawkins, J.D. Asarnow, J.R., Markman, H.J., Ramey, S.L., Shure,M. B., Long, B. (1993). The science of prevention: A conceptual framework For the concept in aesthetics and art criticism, see . A conceptual framework is used in research to outline possible courses of action or to present a preferred approach to a system analysis project. and some directions for a national research program. American Psychologist The American Psychologist is the official journal of the American Psychological Association. It contains archival documents and articles covering current issues in psychology, the science and practice of psychology, and psychology's contribution to public policy. , 48(10), 1013-1022. Donaldson, S.I., Graham, J. W. Piccinin, A. M., Hansen, W. B., (1995). Resistance-skills training and onset of alcohol use: Evidence for beneficial an potentially harmful effects in public schools as in private Catholic schools. Health Psychology. 14:291-300. Donaldson, S. I., Sussman, S., Mackinnon, D.P., Severson, H. H., Glynn, T., Murray, D. M., Stone, E. J. (1996). Drag abuse prevention programming, Do we know what content works? American Behavioral Science behavioral science n. A scientific discipline, such as sociology, anthropology, or psychology, in which the actions and reactions of humans and animals are studied through observational and experimental methods. , 36, 868-883. Hawkins, J.D., Catalano, R.F., Kosterman, R., Abbott, R., & Hill, K.G. (1999). Preventing Adolescent Health-Risk Behaviors by Strengthening Protection During Childhood. Archives of Pediatric pediatric /pe·di·at·ric/ (pe?de-at´rik) pertaining to the health of children. pe·di·at·ric adj. Of or relating to pediatrics. and Adolescent Medicine adolescent medicine n. The branch of medicine concerned with the treatment of youth between 13 and 21 years of age. Also called ephebiatrics, hebiatrics. , 153, 226-234. Kumpfer, K.L. (1999). National Conference on Drug Abuse Prevention Research: Effectiveness of a Culturally Tailored, Family-Focused Substance Abuse Program: The Strengthening Families Program, 13-22. Lonczk, H.S., Abbott, R.D., Hawkins, J.D., Kosterman, R. & Catalano, R.F. (2002) Effects of the Seattle social development project on sexual behavior, pregnancy, birth, and sexually transmitted disease sexually transmitted disease (STD) or venereal disease, term for infections acquired mainly through sexual contact. Five diseases were traditionally known as venereal diseases: gonorrhea, syphilis, and the less common granuloma inguinale, outcomes by age 21 years. Archive of Pediatrics pediatrics (pēdēă`trĭks), branch of medicine dedicated to the attainment of the best physical, emotional, and social health for infants, children, and young people generally. & Adolescent Medicine, 156, 438-47. Social Research Institute (1998). State of Utah Division of Substance Abuse Prevention Needs Assessment Survey Results. Utah State Division of Substance Abuse, University of Utah The University of Utah (also The U or the U of U or the UU), located in Salt Lake City, is the flagship public research university in the state of Utah, and one of 10 institutions that make up the Utah System of Higher Education. . Dan Jones and Associates. Tobler, N.S., Stratton, H.H. (1997). Effectiveness of school based drug prevention programs: A meta-analysis of the research. Journal of Primary Prevention, 18, 71-128. Urban Health Initiative (2000). Substance Abuse Prevention. Research Topic Brief. Seattle WA. Utah Educaton Network: Curriculum Resources (2002). (Online) Available: http://wwwj1.uen.org/uenSearch. Salt Lake City, Utah For ships of the United States Navy of the same name, see . Salt Lake City is the capital and the most populous city of the U.S. state of Utah. The name of the city is often shortened to Salt Lake, or its initials, S.L.C. . Vakalahi H. (2001). Adolescent substance use and family based risk and protective factors: A literature review. Journal of Drug Education, 31(1), 29-46. HEALTH EDUCATION RESPONSIBILITY AND COMPETENCY COMPETENCY, evidence. The legal fitness or ability of a witness to be heard on the trial of a cause. This term is also applied to written or other evidence which may be legally given on such trial, as, depositions, letters, account-books, and the like. 2. ADDRESSED Responsibility IV--Evaluating Effectiveness of Health Education Programs Competency C--Interpret results of program evaluation Program evaluation is a formalized approach to studying and assessing projects, policies and program and determining if they 'work'. Program evaluation is used in government and the private sector and it's taught in numerous universities. Sub-competency 1--Apply criteria of effectiveness to obtained results of a program Thomas W. Tatchell, Ph.D. is an Assistant Professor of Public Health at University of Toledo National recognition In its 125-year history UT has garnered several national accolades. The University’s programs, faculty and facilities have been highlighted in the media, including , Phillip J. Waite, Ph.D. is an Assistant Professor at Utah State University Utah State University, mainly at Logan; coeducational; land-grant and state supported; chartered 1888, opened 1890. It publishes Utah Science, Western Historical Quarterly, and Western American Literary Journal. , Renny H. Tatchell, Ph.D. is a Professor at Central Michigan University Central Michigan University, at Mount Pleasant, Mich.; coeducational; est. 1892 as a normal school, became Central State Teachers College in 1927, achieved university status in 1959. The university maintains a forest that is used for botanical and biological research. , Lynne H. Durrant, Ph.D. is an Associate Professor at University of Utah, and Dale S. Bond, Ph.D. is an Assistant Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University Formed by a merger between the Richmond Professional Institute and the Medical College of Virginia in 1968, VCU has a medical school that is home to the nation's oldest organ transplant program. . Address all correspondence to Thomas W. Tatchell, Ph.D., Department of Public Health and Rehabilitative re·ha·bil·i·tate tr.v. re·ha·bil·i·tat·ed, re·ha·bil·i·tat·ing, re·ha·bil·i·tates 1. To restore to good health or useful life, as through therapy and education. 2. Services, University of Toledo, 2801 West Bancroft St., Toledo, Ohio
in full electronic mail Messages and other data exchanged between individuals using computers in a network. : ttatche@utnet.utoledo.edu. |
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