Strategies for inclusion: an annotated bibliography.

Barbara teaches 4th grade in a mid-sized public school district that is participating in inclusion. Carrie, who is mentally disabled, will be in Barbara's regular 4th-grade classroom all day. Barbara's coursework included limited information about special education and she received no extra assistance from her school district. Consequently, Barbara feels unprepared to teach mentally disabled students such as Carrie. How will Barbara adjust the curriculum to meet Carrie's needs? Where can Barbara get help?

The enactment of P.L. 94-142, which was revised in 1990 as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, presents challenges to regular education teachers like Barbara. This federal law requires public schools to educate disabled students in the least restrictive environment possible. School districts nationwide are responding to this federal law by implementing inclusive practices. In order to meet the challenge of educating special needs children, regular classroom teachers need to adapt, change and develop strategies that will help meet the needs of not just individuals with disabilities, but all individuals (Putnam, 1993; Stainback & Stainback, 1990; Wood, 1992). Inclusion is a challenge for regular education teachers because most have not been adequately prepared.

If given support, however, most teachers can effectively teach special needs children. For inclusion to be successful, regular education and special education teachers need to collaborate with each other to plan, problem solve and evaluate students' progress. In many inclusive models, regular education teachers and special education students benefit from a large support network of students, peers, parents and volunteers. Teachers should use cooperative group learning and a wide variety of teaching strategies to accommodate learners. Those who do so often find that the approach helps both disabled and nondisabled students.

Unfortunately, teachers do not always have the support they need to make inclusion successful. In some schools, regular teachers are asked to teach special needs students without receiving assistance, a practice known as "dumping" (Deschenes, Ebeling & Sprague, 1994; Ryan, 1994). Without support, teachers who do not have sufficient background knowledge in special education are at a loss. They may have to spend an inordinate amount of time with an individual student, to the detriment of other students.

Whatever level of support they receive, regular education teachers can prepare themselves for having special children in the regular classrooms by undergoing additional training. Teachers will also need information on how to recognize children's special needs, develop IEPs, work collaboratively with special education personnel, and adapt curriculum, lesson plans, evaluations and media. Training, workshops, inservice programs and other resources are also vital.

The literature is full of information on effective teaching strategies for inclusion. It is often difficult, however, for teachers to find the time to unearth useful sources. The following annotated bibliography is meant to help regular elementary education teachers find useful information on teaching special needs children in the regular classroom.

This bibliography includes resources from ERIC and other library sources, special education faculty and state departments of education. Several state departments of education provided useful bibliographies and information on materials and videos.

Almost all of the books and articles on inclusion were written by special education professionals. The education field would benefit if more educators in the general elementary education field wrote about their experiences and suggested strategies.

The bibliography is divided into two categories: "Books" and "Journal Articles and ERIC Documents." The sources provide useful suggestions for implementing curricula, lesson plans, teaching strategies, activities and evaluations. Additionally, most of the books in this bibliography contain general information on inclusion and background information on related federal laws.

BOOKS

Bos, C., & Vaughn, S. (1991). Strategies for teaching students with learning and behavior problems (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

This book contains a short section of theory on the teaching-learning process, with a focus on students with learning and behavior problems. The majority of the book, however, provides specific, concrete ideas and suggestions for teaching special needs children in all subject areas. The book covers a wide range of subjects, including: oral language, word identification, written expression, content area learning and study skills, mathematics, computer-assisted instruction and socialization. The focus is on elementary schools, but some ideas for secondary schools are given. Although special education teachers are the primary audience, almost all of the book is applicable to regular education teachers.

Deschenes, C., Ebeling, D., & Sprague, J. (1994). Adapting instruction in inclusive classrooms: A teacher's desk reference. The Center for School and Community Integration Institute for the Study of Developmental Disabilities.

The authors state that "all students can learn what is important for them to learn." They also believe that adaptation is necessary for all students. Given these assumptions, the authors examine and answer common questions about inclusion, such as: "Will teachers have to create completely different lesson plans?" (The authors believe that the needs of each student will dictate adaptations.) Readers will learn the steps for adapting curriculum and instruction, and also learn about different types of adaptations. Specific strategies are given for adapting homework, reading assignments and various subject treatments, as well as evaluation and grading procedures. Teachers can practice by examining samples of completed quick grid planning sheets, classroom observation forms and student planning and evaluation forms, and then filling in blank forms. A staff development activities kit is available from the Center for introducing the desk reference to a group of educators.

Putnam, J. (Ed.). (1993). Cooperative learning and strategies for inclusion: Celebrating diversity in the classroom. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

This book focuses on the use of cooperative learning as a tool for integrating special needs, at-risk and culturally diverse students. The book provides background on inclusive schools and the process of cooperative learning, and describes specific lesson plans and activities in early childhood settings. The final chapter describes a variety of inclusive programs in the United States and Canada that practice cooperative learning.

Stainback, S., & Stainback, W. (Eds.). (1992). Curriculum considerations in inclusive classrooms: Facilitating learning for all students. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

The editors' support for full inclusion of all children in the regular classroom, without regard to ability, is clearly expressed. Readers will find a curricular framework with broad, yet flexible, objectives based on individual student needs. The book shares information on finding ways for professionals to work together, integrating support personnel into the classroom and promoting student collaboration. The authors suggest that students can be peer advocates, tutors and decision-makers on school boards and other groups. The chapter on positive teaching strategies is thought provoking, offering an alternative way to look at challenging behavior. The book explains intervention procedures to reduce problem behavior and suggests community-referenced learning and extracurricular activities.

Stainback, S., & Stainback, W. (Eds.). (1990). Support networks for inclusive schooling: Interdependent integrated education. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

This book focuses on creating support networks for full inclusion in the regular classroom. The editors suggest using a team teaching approach to achieve this goal, and emphasize the need for collaboration among regular and special educators, students, administrators and families. One chapter addresses severe maladaptive behaviors, providing unique solutions to challenging behavior. It is recommended that students have a role on the teaching teams, to provide peer support and encourage friendships. Cooperative learning and student tutoring are also reviewed. Another chapter offers concrete ideas for creating a climate of cooperation and inclusion.

Vernon, D., Schumaker, J., & Deshler, D. (1993). The SCORE skills: Social skills for cooperative groups. Lawrence, KS: Edge Enterprises.

This manual is helpful for teachers who use cooperative groups. It is particularly useful for inclusion classrooms, because students who are unfamiliar with special needs children will need to learn positive ways of working with others. SCORE stands for Share Ideas, Compliment Others, Offer Help or Encouragement, Recommend Changes Nicely and Exercise Self-Control. The authors present detailed, structured lesson plans for teaching these five skills to children, and include practice sheets. The lessons provide many suggestions for modeling cooperative behavior; using advance and post organizers; using techniques to actively involve students, such as "Turn to Your Neighbor" activities; and teaching students to apply these skills to other situations. Modeling, review, role-plays and nonverbal and verbal communication are included in each lesson.

Wood, J. (1992). Adapting instruction for mainstreamed and at-risk students (2nd ed.). New York: Maxwell Macmillan International.

The author provides an overview of laws pertaining to mainstreaming. The majority of the book focuses on concrete ideas for adapting physical and behavioral environments and for adapting lesson plans and teaching modes for mainstreamed and at-risk students. A sample lesson plan gives examples of adapting teaching techniques, media, format of content and evaluation. The author emphasizes providing structure through such techniques as mastery learning.

JOURNAL ARTICLES AND ERIC DOCUMENTS

Beninghof, A. (1993). Ideas for inclusion: The classroom teacher's guide to integrating students with severe disabilities. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 367 094)

This article contains 50 strategies for teachers to use when including students in the regular classroom. Each idea is introduced with a quote or statistic. Some examples of specific ideas included are: managing professional literature, "All About Me" books, simulations and a disability quiz.

Bergen, D. (1993). Teaching strategies: Facilitating friendship development in inclusion classrooms. Childhood Education, 69, 234-236.

The author effectively argues for the importance of friendship development, especially for disabled students, although this brief article does not have specific suggestions for teachers to facilitate friendships. While the teacher's role has traditionally not been to get involved with developing friendships among children, the author suggests that successful inclusion depends on teachers doing so.

Franklin, M., Little, E., & Teska, J. (November 1987). Effective teaching strategies used with the mildly handicapped in the mainstream. Focus on Exceptional Children, 20, 7-11.

This article describes the benefits and limitations of using four teaching strategies for the inclusion of mildly handicapped students: direct instruction, classroom management, cooperative grouping and metacognition. Research summaries demonstrate that all four strategies are effective in certain situations, if done appropriately.

Hamre-Nietupski, S., McDonald, J., & Nietupski, J. (Spring 1992). Integrating elementary students with multiple disabilities into supported regular classes. Teaching Exceptional Children, 24(3), 6-9.

The authors present solutions for four challenges to integration: providing functional curriculum in a regular class (e.g., grooming), providing community-based instruction, scheduling staff coverage and promoting social integration. Specific ideas are illustrated with real classroom examples. The social integration solution, in particular, provides ideas for administrators, teachers and parents.

Ross, F., & Wax, I. (1993). Inclusionary programs for children with language and/or learning disabilities: Issues in teacher readiness. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 369 251)

Using responses from surveys and interviews, the authors gauged the concerns of 16 regular teachers whose students include children with language and/or learning disabilities. All of the teachers felt they were given a new responsibility without proper technical assistance and administrative support. The teachers expressed concern about their inadequate knowledge base of language/learning disabilities, their need for modeling of strategies and collaboration with special educators, and their limitations of time. They found the following aspects of inclusion to be positive: children could be successful in the classroom, the aides were helpful and teachers expanded their personal teaching methods. Implications of the results are described.

Ryan, D. (1994). Inclusion: The key to success, (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 369 617)

A teacher shares insights about how a rural Texas school became inclusionary (see also Young, 1994). This document describes the benefits of inclusion, the importance of collaboration and team work, and the usefulness of regular meetings. A description of the "ideal" inclusion student is also presented.

Schrag, J. (1993). Organizational, instructional and curricular strategies to support the implementation of unified, coordinated, and inclusive schools. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 369 252)

This article provides an extensive analysis and description of strategies and research concerning program strategies, classroom grouping schemes, and teaching methods and procedures. The author explains and evaluates such general teaching methods as reciprocal teaching, social skills training, study skills training, instructional reinforcement, learning styles, mastery learning and effective teaching strategies.

Young, E. (1994). Engineering the classroom to promote inclusion. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 369 614)

The author describes a program in a rural Texas school district (see also Ryan, 1994) in which 5-year-olds with special needs were placed in regular or developmental kindergarten classes. Joint planning, collaboration and flexibility were the keys to success in this program. Students were evaluated by teacher observation, portfolios, IEP reviews, competency testing and the use of "Early Prevention of School Failure" screening. The results were positive with both disabled and nondisabled students.

References

Deschenes, C., Ebeling, D., & Sprague, J. (1994). Adapting instruction in inclusive classrooms: A teacher's desk reference. The Center for School and Community Integration Institute for the Study of Developmental Disabilities.

Putnam, J. (Ed.). (1993). Cooperative learning and strategies for inclusion: Celebrating diversity in the classroom. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

Ryan, D. (1994). Inclusion: The key to success. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 369 617)

Stainback, S., & Stainback, W. (Eds.). (1990). Support networks for inclusive schooling: Interdependent integrated education. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

Wood, J. (1992). Adapting instruction for mainstreamed and at-risk students (2nd ed.). New York: Maxwell Macmillan International.

Alexandria Rekkas is Assistant Professor, Teachers College, Department of Elementary Education, Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana.