Steps in the right direction: lessons from Europe on encouraging cycling and walking. (Research Update).

"In order to improve public health, national governments should develop and implement strategies to stimulate daily cycling: It is the most effective way to save billions of funds in the health sector and solve traffic and environmental problems at the same time."--Dr. Harry Owen, School of Medicine, Flinders University of South Australia and President of the Bicycle Federation of Australia 

The consensus among researchers investigating physical activity as a key component of healthy lifestyles is that physical activity should be moderate, frequent and maintained for life (USDHHS 1996). Unfortunately, technological developments provide labor-saving devices that reduce human energy expenditures and encourage sedentary lifestyles. Physical activity has nearly been excluded from our lifestyles, and is relegated to a leisure activity for many people. The journey to work, school and local shops in previous decades involved walking and cycling; nowadays, these trips are mostly by motor vehicle. Data overwhelmingly indicate that approximately 60 percent of U.S. adults aren't sufficiently active to achieve health benefits, and about 30 percent report no leisure-time physical activity (Jones, Ainsworth & Croft et al., 1998).

Park and recreation departments play an important role in facilitating healthy activity of citizens in the U.S. It's important that all park and recreation professionals be informed of new ideas and policies focused on changing the built environment to make physical activity in our neighborhoods easier, safer and more enjoyable. By implementing and promoting certain types of programs and policies focused on developing supportive built environments, park and recreation professionals, often in concert with other municipal partners, are poised to play a critical role in physical activity promotion in the U.S. The purpose of this research update is to inform park and recreation professionals about the latest research on this topic, with a special focus on lessons we can learn from certain countries in Europe, where impressively high levels of walking and biking are seen. A number of recommendations are presented that, if applied to our communities, have great potential for encouraging greater rates of walking and cycling within our neighborhoods, thereby increasing the health and well-being of our communities.

A Call To Action: Promoting Walking and Cycling

Professionals in all health-related fields recognize the urgent need to encourage and enable individuals to incorporate more physical activity into their lives. Getting more people walking and cycling as part of daily life may be one of the best ways to improve society's health and tackle sedentary lifestyles. There's a developing opinion around the world that cycling and walking should be promoted. A recent report from the World Health Organization has identified cycling and walking for transport as a health-promoting and sustainable mode of transport to be encouraged over car use wherever possible. (The report is available at www.euro.who.int/document/ e72015.pdf.) Other influential groups have joined the call for promoting active forms of transport. For example, the British Medical Association has determined that a shift from car to bicycle/pedestrian travel should be pursued in the same manner that other important health issues have been pursued successfully in the past, such as anti-smoking and wearing seat belts (BMA, 1992).

The individual and societal benefits of promoting walking and cycling are numerous and wide-ranging. Walking and cycling provide the opportunity for regular, moderate physical activity. They offer healthy alternatives to using motorized vehicles for short trips, such as to shops, schools and workplaces. They are modes of transport that don't cause noise or air pollution. The only energy required is provided directly by the traveler, and the activity confers valuable cardiovascular and weight-control benefits (Anderson, 2000). Walking and cycling cost much less than motorized transport, both in direct user costs and public infrastructure costs. In addition, pedestrians, in particular, enhance the liveliness of urban environments, making business districts and residential neighborhoods safer and more interesting.

Recently, a new health initiative sponsored by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Active Community Environments (ACEs), has been launched. ACEs aims to stimulate environmental and policy interventions that will result in increased levels of physical activity and improve public health. Among other goals, ACEs aims to encourage the development of pedestrian- and bicycle-friendly environments, and to promote active forms of transport such as walking and biking. ACEs focuses on characteristics of our communities, such as proximity of facilities, street design, density of housing, and availability of public transit and pedestrian and biking facilities, that play a significant role in promoting or discouraging physical activity. For detailed information about this initiative, see www.cdcgov/nccdphp/dnpa /aces.htm.

The CDC is working with other groups--including the Partnership for a Walkable America, the Pedestrian and Bicycle Information Center, and the U.S. Department of Transportation--to develop pedestrian- and cycling-friendly communities. Together, these entities have developed helpful resources such as a "walkability checklist," which enables individuals to assess how conducive their neighborhood is to pedestrian/bike usage. It includes issues such as sidewalk provision and quality, safety, behavior of motorists and the pleasantness of the physical surroundings. The checklist also includes specific recommendations for improving a community's walkability. The checklist can be found at www. walkingintb.org/pdf/walking check list.pdf.

Safety Concerns: A Deterrent to Walking and Cycling

Unfortunately, public policies over the last few decades in the U.S. have done little to promote non-motorized forms of transport. In fact, according to John Pucher, a leading authority on urban planning issues, transportation and land-use policies have made walking and cycling less feasible, less convenient and more dangerous (Pucher & Dijkstra, 2000). Street design in the U.S. has strongly favored the construction of streets that are wide, smooth and straight; these characteristics encourage high-speed, motorized travel, and discourage walking and cycling. There seems to be a vicious cycle operating in which people are discouraged to cycle and walk more often because of high traffic flows and high speeds of cars, which leads to an unsafe road environment producing fear, which ultimately "pushes" more and more people off the roads and into their cars, so that they can feel more "protected" and "safer" in this threatening environment.

To illustrate the point, many school children in the U.S. are driven or bused to school instead of walking or biking--thereby missing a great opportunity to be physically active--precisely because of concerns for their safety. For trips to school of a mile or less, only 31 percent of kids walk, and for trips within two miles of school, only percent of kids ride their bikes (USDOT, 1997). Paradoxically, much of the traffic in the vicinity of schools is generated by parents who drive their children to school out of concern for the traffic hazards near schools! How can this cycle be broken, if at all?

Fundamental changes are required in the environment in which people live to make the healthy choice the easy choice. There are many barriers to cycling and walking in our built environment--the major deterrent being the real and perceived risk of accidents and their severity owing to the conflict with high-speed motorized traffic. According to the U.S. Department of Transportation, traffic crashes are among the leading causes of death for persons under age 45. Among a total of about 40,000 traffic fatalities, there are about 5,000 pedestrians and 600 cyclists killed each year in the U.S. (USDOT, 1997). Considering that pedestrians and cyclists account for only 7 percent of all trips made in the U.S., it's disheartening to see that pedestrians and cyclists account for more than 13 percent of all traffic fatalities. At the same time, it's not surprising that cyclists and pedestrians are over-represented in road casualty statistics, given that they're forced to move in an environment designed with an overwhelming focus on car travel.

Certain European countries have far greater levels of cycling and walking in comparison with the U.S., and significantly fewer non-motorist fatalities. In most European cities, at least 25 percent of all trips taken are by walking or cycling; in a few countries such as Denmark and The Netherlands, it has been reported that more than 40 percent of all trips taken are by walking or cycling (Pucher & Dijkstra, 2000). In contrast, walking and cycling combined in the U.S. accounted for a mere 7 percent of all trips taken in 1995. About 25 percent of all trips in the U.S. are for distances of a mile or less. About 75 percent of these trips are made by motor vehicle (USDOT, 1997). What could account for the notable gap between levels of walking and biking in parts of Europe compared with levels reported in the U.S.? How can we promote walking and cycling in the U.S. as a means of transport instead of so heavily relying on the automobile as the predominant transport mode?

Non-motorized Travel in The Netherlands

We can learn a great deal from the Dutch about successfully promoting walking and cycling as major modes of non-motorized travel. In 1995, 46 percent of all trips in The Netherlands were made by walking or biking (Kenworthy, 1997). The Dutch clearly understand that, in an age of increasing mobility and time scarcity, pedestrians will take to cars unless they're given the option of safe cycling or walking trips of five miles or less. Dutch cities are world-famous for being bicycle and pedestrian-friendly. They have better facilities for walking and cycling, with all areas being accessible by foot; lower speeds on urban roads; restrictions on motor vehicle use and parking; more rigorous traffic education; and strict enforcement of traffic regulations protecting non-motorized users (Pucher & Dijkstra, 2000).

The Dutch invented "traffic calming" in the early 1970s. There are now 6,500 "woonerfs"--that is, safe local streets where cars are barred or limited to 8 miles per hour or slower. Generally, traffic calming gives pedestrians, cyclists and playing children as much right to use residential streets as motor traffic; motor vehicles are required to yield to these more vulnerable road users. A common design technique is placing obstacles such as benches and planters close to the path of traffic, narrowing streets at various points and using varied paving materials such as cobblestones. These techniques introduce "uncertainty" into the driving conditions, which results in motorists slowing down to navigate. The most important safety impact of traffic calming is the reduced speed of motor vehicles. This plays a crucial role not only to the motorists' ability to avoid hitting pedestrians and cyclists, but also to the survival of non-motorists in a crash. The risk of pedestrian death in crashes rises from 5 percent at 20 miles per hour to 45 percent at 30 miles per hour, and to 85 percent at 40 miles per hour (cited by Pucher & Dijkstra, 2000).

Promoting Transport in the U.S.

Walking and cycling could become healthy and safe alternative forms of transport for short trips in the U.S. if we adopted some or all of the following recommendations.

Increase the Cost of Auto Use: A significant increase in the price or inconvenience of driving would encourage people to look for other ways to get around. Generally, trying to implement such measures is highly unpopular in the U.S. By comparison, in Europe, the price of gasoline is drastically higher than in the U.S. (about U.S. $4/gallon), cars in Europe are much smaller (compared with the SUV mentality in the U.S.), many roads have toll charges, driving speeds in cities are significantly slower compared with the U.S., many city areas have limited car access or have car-free areas, and parking is costly and limited. All of these factors make walking and cycling significantly more attractive in Europe because driving, in comparison, is much less convenient and more frustrating and expensive. The auto-restrictive policies in Europe are part of an effective overall strategy to encourage walking and cycling and to discourage auto use, especially in cities.

Develop extensive cycle/pedestrian networks that provide safe, off-road alternatives along main routes: Most of Europe, especially The Netherlands, has a long tradition of constructing extensive systems of cycling facilities called bikeways. Separate paths and lanes are especially necessary for cyclists who are unable or unwilling to do battle with cars. It's encouraging that, since 1991, governments at all levels in the U.S. have significantly increased spending on cycling-specific programs. The Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 (ISTEA; reauthorized for the 21st century under the Transportation Equity Act, or TEA-21) compelled states to include walking and cycling in their transportation plans, required states to designate cycling coordinators and earmarked federal transportation funds for cycling facilities (Pucher, et al., 1999).

According to the Rails-to-Trails Conservancy (1998; cited by Pucher, et al., 1999), most of the cycling expenditures under ISTEA were used for off highway paths and trails (86 percent), with 13 percent for on-road cycling facilities and 1 percent for cycle parking. The movement to convert disused railway lines into multi-use trails has been successful; however, the trails are predominantly rural and are used overwhelmingly for recreation rather than for utilitarian trips like commuting, shopping or school. Pucher et al. (1999) argue that to significantly increase the amount of cycling undertaken for utilitarian purposes in the U.S., a comprehensive program to make all roads bikeable through physical adaptations and enforcement of cyclists' rights to use the road is necessary.

One exciting recent development has been the creation of the East Coast Greenway, the nation's first long-distance, city-to-city, multi-modal transportation corridor for cyclists, hikers and other non-motorized users. With expected completion by 2010, the greenway consists of a 2,600-mile traffic-free path linking East Coast cities from Maine to Florida. It will increase transportation options, improve air quality, reduce roadway congestion, stimulate local economic development and improve public health by increasing levels of physical activity. The East Coast Greenway Alliance has organized committees in each state to define the route and help move it onto the public agenda, so that local trail segments acquire needed funding, including federal funding, which is the primary resource for building the trail. The East Coast Greenway was officially launched this month in Washington, D.C. For more information on the greenway, see www.greenway.org.

Improve Safety for Pedestrians and Cyclists: Reducing motor vehicles' speed is essential. As noted previously, traffic calming is commonly used in residential areas in Europe to reduce cars to "walking speed." The most advanced form of traffic calming is the "woonerf" in Dutch cities. Slowing vehicles' speed is crucial for avoiding accidents as well as the survival of non-motorists in a crash. It's easy to see why individuals would elect not to cycle or walk in areas that are heavily dominated by speeding traffic. Unfortunately, this is the reality of many residential and city areas in the U.S., where communities are designed to heavily favor travel by automobile.

Hold Special Promotions: Bike/ walk-to-work days or weeks are held in countries all over the world. They're opportunities for individuals to try--and then, ideally, continue--using cycling or walking for transportation. Other examples of large-scale cycling events are "Critical Mass" rides, which originated in San Francisco in 1992. The ride began as organized coincidences of 100 or so cyclists, and have now grown to thousands of riders who revel in commanding the streets. The San Francisco Bicycling Coalition claims that cycling is reaching "critical mass" as these rides gather new cycling devotees and teach drivers to share the roads and be more aware of cyclists. Critical Mass rides have spread to more than 200 cities around the world, including London, Rio de Janeiro, Sydney and many cities and towns in the U.S.

Other examples of special events organized to promote walking and cycling, more specifically among children, are "walking buses" and "safe routes to school" initiatives. Walking buses consist of adults walking groups of pupils to school along set routes with a set timetable so that children can join the walking bus at various pick-up locations along the route. Walk to School Week has also become a popular way to enable kids to be more active in their communities. These programs encourage children to bike and walk to and from school in groups accompanied by adults. For a detailed manual on this program in the U.S., see www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/ kidswalk/pdf/kidswalk.pdf.

The seemingly basic concept of children being able to travel to school by foot has caught on in communities around the world, even resulting in an International Walk to School Day. Last year, nearly 3 million walkers from 21 countries walked to schools together, all hoping to create safer, more walkable communities. This year's International Walk to School Day will take place on Oct. 8. For more information, see www.iwalktoschool.org.

New Approaches to Community Design: In the U.S., separating residents from commercial land uses increases trip distances and makes the car a necessity. Residential roads often feed into high-speed traffic arteries, thereby making non-motorized travel dangerous, if not impossible in some cases. The lack of sidewalks in some neighborhoods further exacerbates the problem of travel without a car. In contrast, new developments in Europe (e.g., The Netherlands and Germany) are designed to provide safe and convenient pedestrian and bike access. Residential developments are "mixed-use," including a range of shops, schools and workplaces that can be reached on foot or by bike. There are a number of increasingly vocal and politically active groups in the U.S. that condemn the urban sprawl that has dominated real estate growth in the U.S. over the last 50 years. These groups advocate a modern version of the traditional American town of times past--vibrant neighborhoods of housing, parks and schools within walking distance of shops, civic services, jobs and transit. This type of urban development encourages pedestrian-oriented activity.

Advocacy: It's unrealistic to believe that improvements in walking and biking will come about without the concerted and combined efforts of many agencies and interested parties. You can work with your state's pedestrian/cycling coordinator (via your state's Department of Transportation) and get groups involved such as local government, schools, health agencies and local businesses. Educate the community about the numerous benefits (health, environmental, social) of increased walking and cycling over car use, and argue the critical need to develop environments supportive of physically active lifestyles for citizens of all ages.

Why is Non-motorized Transport So Low in the U.S.?

What are some of the factors that contribute to the extraordinarily low level of walking and cycling undertaken in the U.S. compared with certain countries in Europe? According to Pucher and Dijkstra (2000), the following factors have a major impact:

* The much lower cost of auto ownership and use in the U.S. compared to Europe.

* The ease, low cost and young age for obtaining a driver's license in the U.S.

* The lack of appropriate (safe and convenient) facilities for cycling and walking in the U.S.

* American culture and lifestyle, which are almost entirely oriented to the car, and which require extremely high levels of mobility with maximum possible comfort, ease, convenience and speed.

* The real or perceived danger of cycling and walking in American cities.

RESEARCH INTO ACTION: MAKE THE CONNECTION

Increasing the use of walking and cycling for transport holds tremendous potential for improving public health in the U.S., but much remains to be done before this can become a reality. Health agencies world-wide are calling for increased walking and cycling as alternatives to trips made by motor vehicles. Considering that most urban journeys are short in length, cycling and walking constitute real alternatives to motorized transportation. Park and recreation professionals are truly on the frontlines in the battle to help make America's streets more walkable and bikable.

If you're interested in implementing some of the ideas presented in this article, contact Department of Transportation TEA 21 coordinators to obtain information on potential and approved projects within your state. In addition, identify and work with key community partners to develop a consensus statement to promote policies, regulations and laws that support increased physical activity in the community. To achieve these goals, however, the most important first step is to convince influential community, business and political leaders of the importance of developing environments supportive of a physically active lifestyle for all constituents.

Many countries in Europe have demonstrated that policies that prioritize bike/pedestrian issues and emphasize non-motorists' safety are successful ways to make cycling and walking major transport modes. The threats posed by sedentary lifestyles to our health and life quality, not to mention the financial costs of physical inactivity, are increasingly evident.

Steps must be taken in the U.S. to improve the urban and road environment to empower individuals to adopt walking and cycling for transport, if for no other reason than for the health of it! Park and recreation professionals are ideal advocates for these programs and policies that can begin to change the profile of America's physical activity patterns for the better.

References

Anderson, L.B. (2000). All-cause Mortality Associated with Physical Activity During Leisure Time, Work, Sports, and Cycling to Work. Archives of Internal Medicine, 160, No. 11, June 12.

BMA (T992). Cycling Towards Health and Safe. Oxford, Oxford University Press.

East Coast Greenway. Retrieved December 15, 2002 from http://www.greenway.org/

Jones, D.A., Ainsworth, B.E., Croft, J.B., et al., 1998. Moderate Leisure-time Physical Activity: Who is meeting the Public Health Recommendations? A National Cross-Sectional Study. Archives of Family Medicine, 7, (May/June), 285-289.

Kenworthy, J. (1997). Indicators of Transport Efficiency in 37 Global Cities. A Report for the World Bank.

Morris, J. (1994). Exercise in the Prevention of Coronary Heart Disease: Today's Best Buy in Public Health. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26, 7:807

Pucher, J. and Dijkstra, L. (2000). Making Walking and Cycling Safer: Lessons from Europe. Transportation Quarterly, 54, No. 3, Summer.

Pucher, J., Komanoff, C., and Schimek, P. (1999). Bicycling Renaissance in North America: Recent Trends and Alternative Policies to Promote Bicycling. Transportation Research, Vol. 33A, No. 7/8, pp. 648-649.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1996. Physical Activity and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Active Community Environments. Retrieved December 12, 2002 from http://www.cdcgov/ nccdphp/dnpa/aces.htm

US DOT. (1997). Nationwide Personal Transportation Survey. US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Research and Technical Support Center. Lanham, Md: Federal Highway Administration.

World Health Organization. Transport: Environment and Health. Retrieved December 10, 2002 from http://www.euro.who.int/document/ e72015, pdfhttp://www.euro.who.int/document/ e72015.pdf

Tonia Fan Staveren, Ph.D., was born and raised in Sydney, Australia. She's currently an assistant professor in the Department of Health and Physical Education at Eastern Connecticut State University. She received her masters and doctorate degrees in kinesiology from the University of Illinois. Her research interests are focused on the psychological benefits of physical activity and on physical activity promotion via the development of strategies to establish built environments supportive of physical activity.