Solitary-Active Play Behavior: A Marker Variable for Maladjustment in the Preschool?

Abstract. This study explored the construct of solitary-active play as a behavioral marker for maladjustment in the preschool. One hundred fifty-three children were observed during free play in preschool over a two-week period. Additional measures included parental ratings of child temperament and attitude towards school, teacher ratings of behavior problems, and child interview assessments of vocabulary and academic achievement. Results indicated that, as compared to their peers, children who frequently engaged in solitary-active behaviors were temperamentally less attentive, more difficult to soothe, behaved more shyly, displayed more externalizing problems, performed more poorly on assessments of early academic shills, and had a less positive attitude towards school. Results are discussed in terms of the potential of solitary-active behavior to act as a marker variable for various forms of social and academic maladjustment in the preschool.

More young children than ever before are attending educationally based early childhood programs (Kostelnik, Soderman, & Whiren, 1993). Results from recent research indicate that in the United States, 37% of 3-year-olds, 58% of 4-year-olds, and 90% of 5-year-olds were enrolled in preprimary education programs (Snyder & Wirt, 1998). The increasing number of children exposed to these programs has led to concerns regarding the impact of early childhood education on children's social and cognitive functioning. Researchers have addressed issues such as the quality of the program (e.g., Bryant, Burchinal, & Lau, 1994; Bryant, Peisneer-Feinberg, & Clifford, 1990), characteristics of the teacher-child relationship (e.g., White, 1993; Whitebrook, Howes, & Phillips, 1990), and individual characteristics that may affect children's adaptation to the pre-primary environment (e.g., Coplan, Barber, & Lagac-Seguin, 1999; Fox & Field, 1988).

How children play in the preschool is considered a good indication of adaptation to the early education classroom. More specifically, it has been recently demonstrated that various forms of nonsocial play behaviors evidenced during free play with peers in the preschool may serve as indicators of different forms of social and emotional maladjustment in this milieu (Coplan, 2000). The goal of the present study was to explore the relationship between a specific form of nonsocial play--solitary-active behavior--and indices of maladjustment in the preschool.

Maladjustment in the Preschool

For the majority of children, preschool is a positive and influential experience that provides opportunities for rewarding peer interactions. However, the transition to preschool is not an easy one for some children. Estimated proportions of children experiencing adjustment difficulties when starting school vary from 13% to 30% of the population (Dohrenwend et al., 1980; Hughes, Pinkerton, & Plewis, 1979). Moreover, preschool behavioral dysfunction beyond the initial adaptation period is quite common (Earls, 1980; McGuire & Richman, 1986; Richman, Stevenson, & Graham, 1975, 1982).

Although prevalence estimates may vary as a function of theoretical and methodological frameworks, the typical reported rates for general adjustment problems from epidemiological studies of preschoolers are between 15% to 20% (Earls, 1980; Jenkins, Bart, & Hart, 1980; Richman et al., 1975). Moreover, results from longitudinal studies indicate that about 40% to 50% of children experiencing behavioral problems in preschool continue to exhibit some form of dysfunction over two- to five-year follow-up periods (Campbell, Ewing, Breaux, & Szumowski, 1986; Chazan & Jackson, 1974; Garrisson & Earls, 1985; Richman, Stevenson, & Graham, 1982). Lerner, Inui, Trupin, and Douglas (1985) reported that preschoolers exhibiting significant behavioral dysfunctions were at least two times as likely to develop specific adult psychiatric disorders.

Nonsocial play. Children's overall adjustment within the classroom is largely influenced by their ability to initiate and maintain adequate personal relationships (e.g., Galejs, Dhawan, & King, 1983). In this regard, children who consistently play alone or refrain from interactions in the presence of peers have generally been considered "at risk" for a host of later adjustment difficulties (e.g., Cowen, Pederson, Bibigian, Izzo, & Trost, 1973; Walker, Greenwood, Hops, & Todd, 1979). However, in recent years it has become clear that nonsocial play is complex and multidimensional (e.g., Asendorpf, 1991; Coplan, Rubin, Fox, Caulkins, & Stewart, 1994; Coplan & Rubin, 1998; Harrist, Zaia, Bates, Dodge, & Pettit, 1997; Rubin, 1982). It has been postulated that there are subsets of solitary behaviors that are independent and reflect underlying differences in behavior, emotions, and motivations. Moreover, different forms of nonsocial play are associated with decidedly different outcomes in the early education classro om.

For example, reticent behavior involves such activities as sitting/standing unoccupied, and observing others without subsequently attempting to join the interaction (Asendorpf, 1991; Coplan et al., 1994). It has been suggested that children who exhibit these behaviors may be experiencing an internal approach-avoidance conflict: they want to interact with agemates, but are fearful or anxious at the same time (Asendorpf 1990). The display of reticent behavior in the preschool seems to be reflective of social anxiety and wariness. In this regard, reticent behavior in the preschool has been associated with maternal ratings of child shyness and negative emotionality, as well as teachers' ratings of children's internalizing problems (Coplan, 2000; Coplan & Rubin, 1998).

A second form of nonsocial play, solitary-passive behavior, consists of solitary-constructive and -exploratory activities (Rubin, 1982). It has been suggested that the display of these behaviors in the preschool is more indicative of a preference for objects over peers (Jennings, 1975), or of social disinterest (Rubin, 1982; Rubin & Asendorpf, 1993). Moreover, researchers have not reported significant associations between the display of solitary-passive play in the preschool and indices of social and emotional maladjustment (Coplan, 2000; Coplan & Rubin, 1998; Rubin, 1982). Rubin (1982) has argued that this form of nonsocial play is positively reinforced by teachers, as it maintains order in the preschool classroom.

Solitary-Active Play

Solitary-active behavior involves the exhibition of solitary-pretense or dramatization and/or solitary-functional (repetitive sensorimotor) activity in the presence of peers (Rubin, 1982). Although this form of nonsocial play occurs quite infrequently during free play (about 3% of the time), solitary-active behaviors appear to be highly negatively salient to teachers and peers (Rubin, 1982). It has been suggested that the display of solitary-active behaviors in the preschool reflects immaturity and impulsivity (Coplan & Rubin, 1998; Rubin & Mills, 1988). Furthermore, there is some evidence to link the display of these behaviors with externalizing problems (Coplan, 2000; Coplan & Rubin, 1998; Rubin & Mills, 1988).

Solitary-active play may be a behavioral manifestation of being socially shunned by peers (Bowker, Bukowski, & Zargarpour, 1998). As such, children who engage in solitary-active play may be doing so because they are "actively isolated" from the peer group (Rubin, 1985). Harrist et al. (1997) reported that children identified as "actively isolated" were found to have pronounced dysfunctions in social cognition, as well as being sociometrically rejected.

However, the relations between solitary-active behaviors and a broader range of adjustment outcomes in preschool remains under-investigated. The goal of the present study was to provide some additional empirical support for the notion of solitary-active play as a marker variable for social and cognitive maladjustment in the preschool. More specifically, we sought to explore the relations between this form of nonsocial play and measures of behavior, temperament, and cognitive functioning.

Method

Participants

The participants in this study were 153 children (74 males, 79 females) between the ages of 45 and 57 months ([M.sub.age] = 51.20, SD = 3.26 mos.). The children were enrolled in 12 half-day junior kindergarten classrooms in nine public schools in a mid-size city in Ontario, Canada. Classrooms from a variety of different schools were included (e.g., English, Alternative, French Immersion), drawn from various parts of the city, and included student populations from a varied range of demographic, socioeconomic, and ethnic backgrounds. Unfortunately, the school board policy did not allow for the collection of data concerning the exact ethnic and racial composition of the sample. However, in terms of reported parental education, about 26% of mothers and 30% of fathers had completed at least some high school, 25% of mothers and 24% of fathers had completed some college Level courses, and 47% of mothers and 44% of fathers had university education or beyond. Only children who spoke English as a first language were in cluded in the present sample.

Procedure

Parent ratings. Near the beginning of the school year (October), mothers completed the Colorado Child Temperament Inventory (CCTI) (Buss & Plomin, 1984; Rowe & Plomin, 1977). The CCTI is used to assess various temperamental characteristics. Mothers rated a series of descriptive items on a five point Likert-type scale in terms of how much these characteristics were "like their child." Of particular interest for the present study were the subscales of shyness (e.g., "child tends to be shy"), activity level (e.g., "child is always on the go"), attention (e.g., "child plays with a single toy for long periods of time"), emotionality (e.g., "child tends to be somewhat emotional"), and soothability (e.g., "when upset by an unexpected situation, child quickly calms down"). Rowe and Plomin (1977) reported moderate-to-high internal consistency estimates and one-week test-retest reliability coefficients for these sub-scales.

Parents also responded to two items pertaining to their children's attitude concerning their school experiences (i.e., "my child looks forwards to going to school each day"; "my child talks positively about his! her school experiences"). These items were each rated on a five-point scale, and were significantly and positively correlated with each other (r = .60, p < .001). The items were subsequently averaged to create an aggregate variable representing children's attitude towards school.

Teacher ratings. Teachers rated children's behavior problems using the Pre school Behavior Questionnaire (PBQ) (Behar & Stringfield, 1974). This scale has well-established psychometric properties (e.g., Hoge, Meginbir, Khan, & Weatherall, 1985; Rubin & Clark, 1983). Based on results from subsequent research (e.g., Coplan & Rubin, 1998; Hoge et at, 1985; Moller & Rubin, 1988), the broader two-factor solution was employed (internalizing problems and externalizing problems).

Child interviews. Individual interview assessments of the children were conducted to evaluate receptive vocabulary and indices of early literacy and numeracy skills. Interview data were collected by five trained female researchers. Interviews were conducted in a quiet corner of the child's classroom.

After spending a few minutes establishing a rapport with the child, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test - Revised (PPVTR) (Dunn & Dunn, 1981) was administered. The PPVT-R is used to assess receptive vocabulary (Booney, West, & Kutsick, 1989) and has well-established psychometric properties (Childers, Durham, & Wilson, 1994; Hayes & Martin, 1986; Miller & Lee, 1993). The next phase of the interview involved the test known as "Sand: Concepts About Print" (Clay, 1972). Children were asked 11 questions concerning a storybook, including questions about the location of the book cover, print, pictures, and the orientation of pictures (see Senechal, Lefevre, Thomas, & Daley, 1998).

The final phase of the interview involved the assessment of numeracy skills. Children were asked to count as high as they could (up to 20) and the highest number achieved without error was recorded. Next, children were given five separate tasks involving the counting of various colored blocks (e.g., "count the blocks," "remove 3 blocks"). These tasks were designed to assess the principles of ordinality and cardinality. A summary score of the number of correct responses (out of 5) was recorded. The internal consistency score for these 5 numeracy items was a = .76.

The measures of concepts about print, counting skill, and numeracy were significantly interrelated (with r ranging from .28 to .33, all p <.01). Moreover, results from principal component factor analyses revealed that they all loaded on a single factor. As such, these variables were standardized and summed to create an aggregate measure of early academic skills.

Behavioral observations. Children's behaviors during free play were observed over a three- to four-week period and coded using an adapted version of the Play Observation Scale (POS) (Rubin, 1989). Each child was observed for a series of 10-second intervals for 4 to 5 minutes per day, on at least three separate occasions. In total, each child was observed for 12 minutes, yielding 72 coding intervals per child.

For each 10-second interval, the child's predominant free-play behavior was recorded. Of particular interest for the present study was the time-sampled variable of solitary-active play (e.g., solitary-functional and -dramatic behaviors). Other behavioral codes included group play, parallel play, and other forms of solitary-play activities. The raw scores were proportionalized by dividing by the total number of coding intervals.

The observation data were collected by six trained research assistants. Inter-rater reliability was computed for pairs of researchers based on 720 codes of data (120 minutes) collected before the start of the study. For a complete variable matrix, Cohen's Kappa between pairs of observers ranged from K = .86 to K = .88.

Creation of extreme groups. Children were placed in the solitary-active group (n = 21) if their score was greater than one SD above the mean in terms of the display of solitary-active behavior. Children who were not observed to engage in any solitary-active play were placed in the comparison group (n = 87).

Results

Preliminary Analyses

To begin with, the solitary-active and comparison groups were compared in terms of age and parental education. Results from a series of t-tests indicated no significant differences between the two groups in terms of these variables. In addition, the results from [c.sup.2] analyses indicated that the distribution of gender for the solitary-active (10 males, 11 females) and comparison groups (39 males, 48 females) did not differ significantly from expected values. As such, these variables were not controlled for in subsequent analyses.

Group Comparisons

Children in the solitary-active group were compared with their peers in terms of measures of child temperament, behavior problems, vocabulary, academic skills, and attitude towards school. Means and standard deviations for all variables for the aolitary-active and comparison groups are displayed in Table 1.

Child temperament. A MANOVA was performed, with group membership (solitary-active versus comparison) as the independent variable, and with parental ratings of child temperament (attention, emotionality, shyness, soothability, and activity) as the dependent variables. Results indicated a significant multivariate effect of child temperament (Wilks' Lamda = .73, F = 5.49, p < .001). Results from subsequent univariate analyses indicated that children in the solitary-active group were significantly less attentive (F= 5.07, p < .05), more shy (F = 4.60, p < .05) and more difficult to soothe (F = 8.82, p < .001) than children in the comparison group.

Behavior problems. A series of independent group t-tests was then conducted to compare solitary-active and comparison children in terms of teacher ratings of behavior problems. Results indicated that children in the solitary-active group displayed significantly more externalizing problems (t = 2.2l, p < .05) than children in the comparison group. Solitary-active and comparison children did not differ significantly in terms of internalizing problems (t = 1.53, ns).

Academic functioning. The next set of analyses involved measures of vocabulary and early academic skills. Results indicated that children in the solitary-active group scored significantly lower in terms of early academic skills (t = -2.77, p < .01) than children in the comparison group. Solitary-active and comparison children did not differ significantly in terms of receptive vocabulary (t = -1.39, ns).

Attitude towards schools. The final analysis concerned children's attitudes towards school. Results from an independent groups t-test revealed that children in the solitary-active group had a significantly less positive attitude towards school than children in the comparison group (t = -2.41, p <.05).

Discussion

The goal of this study was to explore the role of solitary-active behavior as a marker variable for maladjustment in the early childhood classroom. Based on the present findings, it would seem prudent for educators to attend to children's exhibition of solitary-dramatic and -functional play. Moreover, the fact that solitary-active behavior was exhibited by relatively few children suggests that it may be an indicator of underlying difficulties characteristic of a small group of children, rather than of normative play. The nature of these difficulties seems to be wide-ranging and pervasive, involving social as well as academic functioning.

Child temperament. Compared to their peers, children who displayed a high frequency of solitary-active play in the preschool were rated by parents as having shorter attention spans, being more difficult to soothe when upset, and more shy. It is not difficult to conceptualize this combination of temperamental traits as a "poor fit" for the early education classroom. Children with difficulties in sustaining attention and regulating their emotions may find it difficult to adapt to the demands of the preschool setting.

Empirically, the temperamental characteristics of attention, soothability/regulation, and shyness have been associated with poor adjustment in the preschool in both the social (Coplan, 2000; Fox & Field, 1988; Jewsuwan, Luster, & Kostelnik, 1993; Skarpness & Carson, 1987; Slee, 1986; Zajdeman & Minnes, 1991) and academic realms (Coplan et al., 1999; Lerner, Lerner, & Zabski, 1985; Martin, Drew, Gaddis, & Mosely, 1988; Martin, 1989; Schoen & Nagle, 1994). As such, children in the solitary-active group appear to have temperamental characteristics that place them at an increased risk for a host of negative outcomes in the preschool.

Behavior problems. Children in the solitary-active group were rated by teachers as displaying more externalizing behaviors than children who did not engage in this type of non-social play. This finding provides further support for the link between solitary-active play and aggressive/acting out behaviors (Coplan, 2000; Coplan & Rubin, 1998; Rubin & Mills, 1988). Given the well-established link between aggression and peer rejection (see Coie & Dodge, 1998, for a recent review), further credence can be attributed to the speculation that solitary-active children may be playing alone because they have been isolated by the peer group (Rubin, 1985).

Researchers have reported a relation between solitary-active play in preschool and peer rejection (Harrist et al., 1997; Rubin, 1982). If rejected by peers, children who engage in a high frequency of solitary-active behavior may not be building the social relationships and social-cognitive competencies that are so important to adjustment and functioning in the social world (e.g., Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 1998). However, future research is required to further explore the nature of the causal relation between solitary-active play and peer rejection. For example, some children may be rejected because they display solitary-active play. Alternatively, some children may display-solitary active play because they are rejected (and no one wants to play with them).

Academic functioning. In addition to the social difficulties that children in the solitary-active group appear to be demonstrating, the authors' findings suggested these children may also be experiencing academic difficulties. Specifically, children in the solitary-active group performed more poorly on assessments relating to early indicators of academic achievement than their peers. As mentioned previously, the combination of a shorter attention span and difficulty in self-soothing already suggest a poor fit with the academic environment. When a tendency to be disruptive and act out in the classroom is added to this mix of characteristics, the resulting poorer academic skills for the children in the solitary-active group make conceptual sense.

Solitary-active children did not display lower receptive vocabulary scores than their peers. Receptive vocabulary is a strong correlate of verbal intelligence (Dunn & Dunn, 1981) and has been employed as an indication of a child's IQ (Altepeter, 1989; Schoen & Nagle, 1994). As such, it can be argued that solitary-active children are lagging behind in the acquisition of early literacy and numeracy skills that are taught in the preschool. In other words, these children's difficulties appear to reside in their ability to adjust to the classroom environment, rather than from innate cognitive deficits.

Implications

Given the pervasive pattern of social and academic adjustment difficulties demonstrated by the solitary-active group, it was not surprising to note that these children were rated by parents as being less satisfied with their preschool experiences. The children in the solitary-active group appear to be having difficulties in multiple domains on the preschool environment. Taken together, these findings paint a very worrisome picture of the social and cognitive functioning of children who engage in a high frequency of solitary-active behaviors.

Although this behavior is observed to occur quite infrequently, educators need to be aware of the potentially negative consequences of this salient behavior. Children's display of active solitude may be a warning sign that these children are not adjusting well to the learning environment, and it may pose management problems for teachers. Coplan (2000) reported that the display of solitary-active play as early as the first day of preschool was associated with rough play and externalizing problems later on in the school year. As such, even when teachers first observe a child engaging in this form of nonsocial play, they may wish to more closely monitor the child's interactions with peers.

Subsequent research should focus on a longitudinal examination of solitary-active behavior and its associates, with particular attention paid to a wide range of longer-term adjustment outcomes. The results from the present study, in concert with the growing extant literature, suggest that the frequent display of solitary-active play behaviors may assist in the identification of children who would benefit from ameliorative intervention programs. Moreover, the nature of these interventions should be wide-ranging, with a focus on social, social-cognitive, and academic difficulties.

Authors' Note. This research was supported by the Ottawa-Carleton District School Board and an SSHRCGR6 internal grant from Carleton University to author Coplan. The authors wish to thank Ann Barber, Dana Stimpson, and Nadia Towaij for their help in the collection and coding of data. We also wish to thank all of the teachers, early childhood educators, principals, children, and families that participated in this study. Requests for reprints should be addressed to Dr. Robert J. Coplan, Department of Psychology, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada.

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Table 1

Means and Standard Deviations of Solitary-Active and Comparison Groups

Variable                 Solitary-Active        Comparison

Child Temperament
        Attention             3.24 (.47)        3.60 (.60)
        Emotionality          2.27 (.83)        2.61 (.74)
        Shyness               2.66 (.87)        2.18 (.78)
        Soothability          3.01 (.62)        3.54 (.64)
        Activity              3.55 (.60)        3.90 (.68)
Behavior Problems
        Externalizing         1.51 (.52)        1.29 (.42)
        Internalizing         1.49 (.37)        1.35 (.38)
Academic Functioning
        Academic Skills       -1.08 (2.64)      .52 (1.87)
        Vocabulary            89.61 (28.97)     98.28 (22.52)
Attitude Towards School       4.03 (1.13)       4.56 (.71)

- numbers in brackets represent standard deviations