Social Skills Training for the 21st Century.

Abstract

This paper introduces the Social Skills Training for the 21st Century Model (SST-21). This innovative group approach for enhancing social skills provides creative and indirect activities to students. The SST-21 Model has four components; Media, Recreation, Family and Community, and Enterprise.

While the need to develop effective strategies to improve the social skills of students with disabilities has long been apparent, the methods used to develop these skills have varied considerably. In their review of the history and development of social skills training, Goldstein and McGinnis (1997) suggest that until the early 1970s, three major psychological approaches dominated the field, the psychoanalytic, nondirectivist, and behavior modification models. The first model represented the psychoanalytic school of thought and suggested that calling forth and interpreting the unconscious thoughts of the child could facilitate behavioral change. In this way, the latent awareness of the child could emerge, and healthy, appropriate behavior would follow. The nondirectivist, or humanistic psychological model, sought to create changes in behavior by providing an empathic and accepting environment. Theorists postulated that such environmental adaptations would stimulate the potential for change within the child, enabling the child to make better proactive behavioral decisions. Practitioners of the third model, behavior modification, employed contingent reinforcement of appropriate behaviors in an attempt to increase the probability that these behaviors would recur.

In the early 1970s, a shift occurred from the therapeutic model toward a pedagogic or direct teaching approach. As greater numbers of educators came to the conclusion that inappropriate or ineffective interpersonal skills were learned, it became clear that appropriate and effective interpersonal skills could and should be taught. Based on the principles of social learning (modeling) theory, a number of direct teaching models were proposed and implemented (Bandura, 1977). Several of these approaches are in wide use today. Among the most widely used approaches are the Boys Town Model (Dowd, Tobias, Connolly, Criste, & Nelson, 1993), and Skillstreaming the Adolescent (Goldstein, Sprafkin, Gershaw, & Klein, 1998).

While differences exist in the implementation and practices of these and other social skill models, certain commonalties are apparent. Direct teaching of social skills is emphasized. Specific skill deficiencies are identified, and student groups are formed based upon common needs. Many models require specific classroom arrangements, specific timing and spacing of class sessions, and prescribed systems of reinforcement. In order to maximize success, many direct teaching models require hours of teacher training prior to implementation, and remain personnel intensive after training, often requiring the presence of more than one trained instructor at each teaching session (Weiner, Fritsch, & Crenshaw, 2000).

Many of these demands can be met with relative ease in a Special Day Classroom (SDC) for students with disabilities. However, the ongoing trend toward inclusive programming as mandated by the Reauthorization of IDEA (1997) has resulted in the placement of many students with disabilities in general education settings. Thus, the demands of the direct teaching of social skills may simply be overwhelming and impractical in general education settings. As the social skills training movement has matured, relevant evidence regarding effectiveness has accumulated. It has become clear that specific social skills can be acquired in the classroom situation. The generalization of these skills, however, is quite another matter. Both generalization to new settings (transfer) and over time (maintenance) have been reported to occur in only a few of the training situations (Gresham, 1998; Mathur & Rutherford, 1997). Individualized skills for students with disabilities have largely been ignored. According to Gresham (1998), a number of social skills training programs "provide treatment with a complete disregard for the types of social skills deficits the child may have" (p.32); and, he refers to this as a "one size fits all mentality" (p.32). The authors have confirmed this as they have visited numerous classrooms where social skills training was implemented and where all the students had the same social skills as targets.

Ignoring the social context within which social skills occur has led to numerous contextual problems for students. Gresham (1998) points out that training takes place in "contrived, restricted, and decontextualized settings" (p.32). The teacher who only employs role-playing in the classroom should expect that generalization of social skills will not occur. For generalization to take place, naturalistic settings (e.g., classroom, playground, cafeteria) must be used to foster meaningful contextual connections (Gresham, 1998; Mathur & Rutherford, 1997; Strain 2001). More importantly, activities that provide meaningful contextual connections within naturalistic settings should be employed (Weiner & Fritsch, in press). Strain (2001) argues that peers are the most effective change agents for improvements in social skills. However, in the direct teaching programs, the change agents have been teachers or trainers. It's time to question such practices. The authors argue that the direct model can be very threatening to students with and without disabilities. Typically, students with social skills deficits are not open to direct feedback. Rather, the authors have found that students respond in a more positive way to social skills training if the facilitator can present the information in a non-threatening manner.

Traditionally, the direct teaching approach has not employed the use of high interest material that addresses today's learner. The authors believe that the use of high interest material such as television, popular music, and games must be employed to engage today's learner. Learning styles of students may be visual, auditory, tactile-kinesthetic, or a combination of styles. In the past, children tended to be exposed to more auditory-based media influences. As listening to the radio gave way to television, more visually oriented influences impacted children's learning. Today's children are even more heavily influenced by visual media in the forms of digital TV and computer based CDs. Why not consider using these influences to assist children in their learning both in the classroom and at home (Fritsch, Weiner, & Banks, 1997)? Finally, the direct teaching approach has its merit. It provides a curriculum of many specific social skills such as How to Follow Instructions, How to Accept Feedback, and How to Accept No for an Answer (Goldstein, et al., 1998). In essence, it provides a springboard for innovative activities.

A great need exists to create a new innovative model to address the many social skills needs of today's children and youth. Such a model should combine the positive aspects of the direct teaching approach with a more innovative, non-threatening, and creative approach, i.e., the indirect approach. It is the intention of the authors to introduce the SST-21 model that has four components (Figure 1). The first component, Media, includes the use of broadcast television and movies, print cartoons, popular music, and interactive stories as a medium to deliver social skills. The second component, Recreation, utilizes cooperative games and sports events as an avenue for delivering social skills instructions. The third component, Family and Community, capitalizes on real life situations and family television viewing as effective social skills learning tools. Finally, the fourth component, Enterprise, uses student-operated businesses as a means of presenting real life situations in which appropriate social skills are critical to the success of the student run business. It also includes school and community service as a means of providing naturalistic settings where students can explore their skills. A common assumption for all components is that the teacher becomes the facilitator, and is called a facilitator rather than a teacher. In moving away from the practices of the past, the responsibility to solve problem behavior is directly placed with the group. The power of the peer group guided by the facilitator is the ultimate goal. This is, in many ways, a major paradigm shift in and departure from the way the direct teaching model has been delivered in the past. See <http://rapidintellect.com/AEQweb/sum02.htm>

Media--The Use of Television, Cartoons, Popular Music, and Interactive Stories Students watch a teacher selected, age-appropriate television show everyday for 30 minutes. Students record inappropriate and appropriate behavior they observe during the 30-minute serial. After viewing the program, students tally their markings and discussion follows, requiring each student to give the group one appropriate and one inappropriate behavior they observed. Students also provide alternative behaviors to the inappropriate behaviors recorded. The role of the facilitator is to guide the discussion by posing probing questions that are aimed at taking the discussion from a concrete or factual level to a more analytical, problem-solving level. Invariably, students began talking about some of the problem behaviors they exhibited. Such discourse usually would never happen in any other forum. Discussions provide opportunities for students to engage in problem solving and an opportunity to address the social context within which their behavior occurs. For instance, if one of the TV characters is engaged in inappropriate behavior (yelling) at the grocery store, then students have an opportunity to examine that behavior in a specific context or environment (grocery store).

Cartoons offer a wonderfully, non-threatening way to teaching students social skills. Cartoons may have one caption or many. Facilitators are required to list the social skill problems they are experiencing. Next, they find age-appropriate cartoons that the students can comprehend that present the social skill problem. Then, they create language arts activities that guide the student to assist the cartoon characters in solving problems or disputes presented in the cartoon. For example, if a student is bullying another student, the facilitator will find a cartoon that addresses such a problem. Then, he or she can white out all captions in the cartoon and have the student rewrite what the cartoon characters may be saying to each other. Or, he or she can provide guiding questions that ask the student to discuss how character X should respond to being picked on in the cartoon. Such activities can be presented to one or more students, are great sponge activities, and are effective ways to teach students how to write sentences, paragraphs, or stories.

Popular music can be used as a very effective means in delivering social skills training. This intervention works better--and is more age appropriate--for the secondary student. The facilitator requests that students bring their favorite compact disc to class. The facilitator reviews the selections concerning the lyrics and the stories that the lyrics detail before the actual lesson. The facilitator selects poignant lines from the song and makes overheads containing the lines to be discussed. Much of today's songs have very explicit lyrics so it will be at the facilitator's discretion whether or not to censure the words (abbreviations work well). The main focus of this exercise is to get students to critically analyze the negative messages many contemporary songs convey to the listener.

The use of interactive stories is a unique format that addresses new or troublesome social skills. A story is written by the facilitator and read to a group of students. The use of illustrations to accompany the story can be cut out from magazines. This is an excellent way to reach the visual learner. Furthermore, pictures provide a context, and the saying "a picture is worth a thousand words" indeed applies to this intervention. The facilitator writes the story in an informal manner and makes sure that it is of high interest to the students. Depending on the age of the students, one can include cartoon characters or popular sports and entertainment figures. The story is read or told until the point when the character(s) are about to make a behavior choice. The facilitator then stops the story and the class begins discussing all the possible choices. Once all of the choices are discussed, the class decides on the best solution. The story is completed based on the class decision. It is important to note that if the choice is inappropriate, the facilitator should not try to change it. Rather, the facilitator should explore with the students the consequence(s) of the inappropriate choice. Through further discussion, the group should be encouraged to fully explore the consequence of their choice. An extension of this activity is to divide the class into groups based on the choice students believe is most appropriate. This method is particularly appropriate for young children and taps into their natural enjoyment of stories and storytelling.

Recreation- The Use of Cooperative Games and Sports Activities

Recreation uses group games and sporting activities to deliver social skills activities. Group games require students to work cooperatively in order to solve problems. For instance, students might be given 3 drinking straws, one 12-inch piece of duct tape, 2 rubber bands, and an uncooked egg. Students are divided into groups of three and must build a capsule from the materials provided that will protect the egg from a six-foot drop. Students are using problem-solving skills in a cooperative group that provides many teachable social skill moments. Sporting activities can also be used in the same manner. The facilitator can take the class to the school playground, football field, or gymnasium where they can engage in a team sport. As students engage in the sport, the facilitator can observe and address many appropriate or inappropriate behaviors. Any time the facilitator blows the whistle, the game stops and everyone freezes. The group gathers in a circle to debrief regarding the appropriate or inappropriate behaviors. Once again, the group, not the facilitator, discusses the problem and comes up with a solution. Only when an agreeable and democratic solution is agreed upon can the game resume. Note: At a neutral time, students are taught how to conduct a debriefing. This is where the direct approach is useful in teaching them a step-by-step approach to having a group debriefing.

Family and Community--The Use of Real Life Homework and Family Television Viewing

Activities under this category include "real life" homework and television viewing with a parent or other caretaker. One very effective example of this type of activity is having students call a department store to find out the price of an item of their choice. They are given a sheet of questions that they must answer based on the conversation with the salesperson. One question might be, "Was the salesperson courteous when he or she answered the phone?" Criteria are provided so that the student can critically evaluate the salesperson. The next day in class, the students can discuss their findings and/or problem-solve a fellow student's negative experience. Family television viewing requires the same method of television viewing under the Media component. However, instead of being conducted in the classroom, the intervention is conducted in the home where parent(s) and child watch a show and use a Behavior Recording Sheet to facilitate a discussion about the inappropriate and appropriate behaviors observed. The facilitator can easily conduct a training session for the parents either after school or on the weekend.

Enterprise--The Use of Student-Operated Businesses and School/Community Service

Starting a student-operated business in the context of the school is a simple process. For example, students can start a business that provides a variety of services for the faculty and the staff. One facilitator who employed the SST-21 program started a plant rental business. With the help of the facilitator, the students developed a business constitution detailing the goals of the business, as well as the rules of employee conduct. Students elected officers such a President, Vice-President of Operations, Vice-President, Marketing, and Comptroller. With assistance from a local nursery, the business acquired 20 indoor plants. Student salespersons approached customers (faculty and staff) to sign up for a plant rental program for the semester. For one dollar a week, the plant was watered and cared for. Every four weeks a different plant replaced the original plant. Faculty and staff could enjoy a plant in their classroom or office without having to worry about taking care of the plant. Students were confronted with authentic situations in which they experienced satisfied and unsatisfied consumers. It was up to the students to resolve problems that they encountered when engaging customers. They would meet and discuss ways to solve problems so that a satisfactory resolution could be reached.

School or community service opportunities are numerous on many campuses. As a group, students can volunteer to engage in one or more activities on the campus or in the community. An example of this might include school or community beautification. Typically, these activities can require a great deal of preparation, but they provide endless opportunities within naturalistic settings for students to practice newly acquired skills.

Conclusion

By combining the best of the direct teaching approach with the indirect approach (Weiner, Fritsch, & Crenshaw, 2000) to teaching social skills, the SST--21 Model provides an excellent alternative to current direct social skills training programs. The four components of the model provide a variety of high interest materials and authentic situations where students can begin to explore their skill deficits in a non-threatening manner. Additionally, with peer support and guidance, students can find ways to demonstrate socially enhancing responses to a wide variety of activities in various social situations. Further research regarding this promising model is needed so that its generalization and maintenance can be determined

References

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Fritsch, R.E., Weiner, I., & Banks, A.B. (1997, October). Alternative methods to teaching social skills: The indirect approach. A session presented at the International Conference on Children and Youth with Behavioral Disorders, Council for Children with Behavioral Disorders, Irving, Texas.

Goldstein, A.P., & McGinnis, E. (1997). Skillstreaming the adolescent: New strategies and perspectives for teaching prosocial skills. Champaign, IL: Research Press.

Goldstein, A.P., Sprafkin, R.P., Gershaw, N.J. & Klein, P. (1998). Skillstreaming the Adolescent. Champaign, Illinois: Research Press.

Gresham, F.M. (1998). Social skills training: Should we raze, remodel, or rebuild. Behavioral Disorders, 24(1), 19-25.

Mathur, S.R., & Rutherford, R.B. (1997). Social skills training effective for students with emotional and behavioral disorders? Research issues and needs. Behavioral Disorders, 22, (1).

Strain, P.E. (2001). Empirically based social skill intervention: A case for quality of life improvement. Behavioral Disorders, 27(1), 30-36.

Weiner, I., & Fritsch, R.E. (in press). The use of television to teach prosocial behavior to students with emotional and behavioral disorders (E/BD). National Social Science Journal.

Weiner, I., & Fritsch, R.E. (1997). The behavior recording sheet. Denton, TX: Texas Woman's University.

Weiner, I., Fritsch, R.E., & Crenshaw, D. (2000). What they don't tell us about at-risk children: Using television to teach social skills to children with emotional/behavioral disorders. In D. Crenshaw (Ed.), National Coalition for At-Risk Children and Youth: Vol. 5, Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Conference (pp. 76-82). Denton, TX: Texas Woman's University.

Weiner, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor of Special Education. Fritsch, Ed.D., is an Associate Professor of Early Childhood and Special Education. Rosen. M. Ed., is an Inclusion Facilitator for students with special needs.