Sneaking in from above.

The post-nine-eleven emphasis on counter-terrorism has made special forces more important than ever. Their success in high-risk reconnaissance, strike and rescue missions, often deep inside hostile territory, depends crucially on the availability of suitably equipped fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft to insert, re-supply, support them with firepower and extract them.

Classic actions by special forces include the seizure by Soviet units of the airports at Prague (1968) and Kabul (1979). Spetsnaz forces were employed later in operations in Afghanistan in the 1980s, and more recently in Chechnya, using heavily armed and armoured assault helicopters of the Mil Mi-24 and Mi-8/17 families.

Another classic was Operation Jonathan of 1976, in which a small Israeli force led by the Sayeret Mat'Kal liberated 106 hostages held by terrorists at Entebbe airport in Uganda, following the hijacking of an Air France flight. In contrast, America experienced catastrophic failure in its Operation Eagle Claw of 1980, aimed at rescuing 52 American hostages who were being held in its embassy in Tehran.

Eagle Claw was undoubtedly a factor in the formation in 1987 of the Socom (US Special Operations Command), which combines the special forces of America's four armed services (see Also Known As). By the time of the 1991 Gulf War some significant equipment advances had taken place. For example, the US Navy had the Sikorsky HH-60H Rescue Hawk, which was operated by day and night tasked by the Air Force Special Operations Command. The US Navy currently has around 24 HH-60Hs, which are also used to insert and extract Seals.

Also Known As

Afsoc

US Air Force Special Operations Command

Afres

US Air Force Reserve

ANG 

US Air National Guard

AW

US Air Force Airlift Wing

Csar

Combat Search and Rescue 

NSW 

US Naval Special Warfare Command.

PJ

US Air Force Para Rescue personnel

Seal

US Navy Sea Air Land commandos

Socom

US Special Operations Command

Soar

Special Operations Aviation Regiment

Soll

Special Operations--Low Level

Spetsnaz

(Russian) Spetsialnoye Naznachenie

(Special Purpose)

USASOC 

US Army Special Operations Command

USMC Socom

US Marine Corps Special Operations Command

The HH-60H is to be retired in 2013, but the US Navy plans to acquire 48 Bell/Boeing MV-22 Osprey tilt-rotor aircraft for personnel recovery, fleet logistic support and special warfare, initially replacing the Boeing HH-46D. The Special Operations Command will likewise purchase 50 CV-22s (presumably to be operated by the air command as a replacement for the MH-53) for long-range special operations, contingency operations, evacuations and maritime special operations. The CV-22 is to achieve initial operational capability in 2009.

In Desert Storm Air Force Special Ops operated Sikorsky MH-60G Pave Hawks and MH-53J Pave Lows, which performed Combat Search and Rescue in addition to other duties. These included the MH-53Js acting as pathfinders for the Boeing AH-64s that destroyed key Iraqi air defence radar sites at the outbreak of the action.

The Pave Hawk, now designated HH-60G to indicate its rescue role, is a 9.9-tonne twin-engined helicopter with a retractable flight refuelling probe and folding blades to facilitate deployment in transport aircraft. It has recently been equipped with a single-barrel FN Herstal GAU-18 12.7 mm machine gun, giving an effective range of 1500 metres, compared to 800 metres for 7.62 mm. There are 64 HH-60Gs in the active inventory, plus 23 with the Air Force Reserve and 18 with the Air National Guard.

The HH-60G is to be replaced by the Personnel Recovery Vehicle. In Phase 1, some 61 helicopters with a maximum speed of 250 to 340 km/hr are to be ordered, the first 18 Block 0 aircraft achieving initial operational capability in FY2011, with the improved Block 10 following in 2014. The known contenders are the 10.6-tonne Eurocopter/AgustaWestland NH90, the 12.8-tonne Sikorsky H-92 Superhawk, and the 15-tonne Lockheed Martin US101 variant of the AgustaWestland International EH101. It may be noted that Eads (which owns Eurocopter) and Northrop Grumman have recently announced their intention to cooperate on a submission for the Personnel Recovery Vehicle, presumably based on the NH90. The second phase calls for 71 aircraft with a maximum speed of 370 to 555 km/hr and an unrefuelled combat radius of 325 to 450 km.

The MH-53J Pave Low III is a 20.9-tonne, two-engined helicopter with three 7.62 mm Miniguns, a flight refuelling probe, terrain-following/avoidance radar, a flir sensor, INS+GPS navigation and a projected map display. It can carry up to 38 troops. The MH-53M Pave Low IV is basically a J-model that has been upgraded with the Interactive Defensive Avionics System/Multi-Mission Advanced Tactical Terminal providing access to the total battlefield situation. Both Pave Lows are tasked with the insertion, re-supply and extraction of Special Forces teams. The Air Force Special Operations Command has 13 MH-53Js and 25 MH-53Ms.

Other Air Force Special Operations Command assets used in Desert Storm included the Lockheed Martin AC-130H 'Spectre', one of which was destroyed by ground fire. The AC-130U 'Spooky' with an improved sensor suite and modified armament was introduced in 1995 and first saw action over Kosovo in 1999. It retains the 105 mm M-102 gun and 40 mm L-60 Bofors of the AC-130H, but the latter's pair of 20 mm M-61 Gatlings are replaced by a single 25 mm GAU-12/U (as used on the US Marine Corps Boeing AV-8B), providing longer range. The lightweight, laser-homing Northrop Grumman Viper Strike missile is under study for the AC-130 (and the US Army's Northrop Grumman RQ-5 Hunter drone). Boeing is working on an Airborne Tactical Laser (ATL) for the AC-130. The sensor suite consists of a Raytheon APQ-180 radar, a Raytheon AAQ-17 (later -26) infrared detecting set and a General Electric ASQ-145 All Light Level TV.

The Afsoc gunship inventory consists of eight AC-130Hs and 13 AC-130Us, but Boeing is converting four more C-130Hs to AC-130Us. It is accepted that the AC-130 can only be used in a low threat environment, and that beyond 2015 some less vulnerable 'AC-X' is desirable.

The MC-130E Combat Talon I is now flown only by the reserves (14 aircraft), the later MC-130H Combat Talon II (22 aircraft) being used by three active squadrons. Ten more C-130Hs are to be converted to MC-130H standard. The primary Combat Talon mission is the insertion, re-supply and extraction of Special Forces, but MC-130s are also used as tankers for the Afsoc helicopters and for psychological-operations (psy-ops). In Desert Storm MC-130Es dropped eleven 6.8-tonne BLU-82/B blast bombs. Nine MC-130Es are equipped with the Fulton air recovery system, with which personnel or other loads may be snatched from land or water. The MC-130H has modern avionics and a glass cockpit. Both types have terrain-following/avoidance radars, allowing them to operate as low as 250 feet in adverse weather.

In 2002 it was reported that the Afsoc saw a need for up to 54 'Combat Talon IIIs' in view of tanking demands associated with the US Army's planned expansion of the 160th Special Operations Air Regiment. The resulting MC-X analysis of alternatives may well lead to the acquisition of a new version of the US Marine Corps KC-130J, perhaps as early as FY2006 or 2007.

The MC-130P Combat Shadow is primarily a tanker for special operations helicopters, and thus mainly operates at low level at night. Secondary missions include dropping leaflets, Special Operations teams and watercraft. The Afsoc inventory consists of 24 MC-130Ps with the active force and four with the National Guard.

The HC-130P/N is the Air Force's only fixed-wing dedicated combat search and rescue aircraft, its primary mission being to act as a tanker in extending the range of rescue helicopters. Secondary missions include dropping pararescue (P J) teams. Zodiac watercraft and four-wheel drive vehicles, and visual and electronic searches over land and water. The HC-130P/N has a refuelling receptacle in the upper front fuselage and some variants have the Fulton rescue gear. These aircraft normally operate at night, the crews using night vision goggles (NVG). The current inventory consists of 13 aircraft with active US Air Force units, 13 with the National Guard and another ten with the Air Force Reserve.

There are several EC-130 variants associated with special operations. The EC-130E ABCCC (Airborne Battlefield Command and Control Center) is clearly very different in equipment from the psywar EC-130E Commando Solo, which makes radio and TV broadcasts and is only flown by the Pennsylvania National Guard. The Air Force has ordered five new-generation EC-130J Commando Solos, which are reportedly taking operational equipment from the older EC-130Es that they replace. The EC-130J had its maiden flight on 4 November 2003, leading to the first delivery on 10 September 2004. Special Operations Command has announced a need for the EC-130J to be equipped with the Northrop Grumman Large Aircraft Infrared Countermeasures (Laircm) system, with Lockheed Martin performing systems integration. The EC-130H Compass Call aircraft are assigned to Air Combat Command and are equipped to perform tactical information warfare; jamming enemy command and control communications systems.

In 1998 Boeing won a ten-year contract to support all 87 Air Force Special Operations Command Hercules. Two years later the company was awarded a contract to develop and produce Engine Infrared Suppression Systems for these aircraft, using a suppressor developed by the Allison Advanced Development Company. BAE Systems is working with the service to reduce noise and vibration levels on the Hercules by means of an active digital synchrophaser, making small adjustments to the phase differences between propellers. Standard equipment includes the Northrop Grumman AAQ-24(V) Dircm (Directional InfraRed CounterMeasures) system and a fibre-optic towed decoy.

Eagle Claw demonstrated the need for relatively large transport aircraft that could penetrate hostile airspace by flying at low level at night, navigate accurately and land at and take off from medium-size airstrips. This resulted in the Soll (Special Operations--Low Level) series of specially equipped jet transports, flown by specially trained units. These were led by the Lockheed Martin C-141s of the 437th Airlift Wing, based at Charleston AFB, South Carolina. The C-141s are now supplemented by the Lockheed Martin C-5s of the 436th Airlift Wing at Dover AFB, Delaware, and most recently by Boeing C-17s, also of the 437nd AW. All these aircraft are assigned to the Air Mobility Command.

US Army

The 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Airborne) represents the aviation element of the US Army Special Operations Command. It employs a mixed force of MD AH/MH-6 Little Bird lightweight helicopters (jointly supported by MD Helicopters and Boeing), Sikorsky MH-60 Pave Hawks and Boeing MH-47 Chinooks. The AH/MH-6M Mission Enhanced Little Bird (Melb) has a maximum weight of 2.15 tonnes. The AH-6M is armed with two 7.62 mm Miniguns and 14 Hydra 70 rockets, while the unarmed MH-6M can carry six troops externally and two internally. Six H-6s can be accommodated in a C-141 and three in a C-130. Approximately 50 H-6s are on order.

The 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment has around 23 Sikorsky MH-60Ks and 37 MH-60Ls. The AH-60L is an informal designation for the MH-60L Dap (Direct Action Penetrator), which has provisions for armament that includes 30mm Chain Guns, a 40 mm grenade launcher and Lockheed Martin Hellfire missiles.

All of these are expected to be modified to MH-60M standard, with widechord composite blades, new avionics, glass cockpits and possibly new General Electric CT7-8 or Rolls-Royce Turbomeca RTM322 engines in place of its GE T700s. The US Army would like to have 36 more MH-60s.

The regiment has eleven Boeing MH-47Ds and 23 MH-47Es, the latter being equipped with a probe for in-flight refuelling. All are eventually to be upgraded to MH-47G standard with a Collins Common Aviation Architecture System glass cockpit, improved engines and avionics and better air transportability.The first of six Lot 1 MH-47Gs (converted from CH-47Ds) was delivered in May 2004, and a contract for 16 similar Lot 2 aircraft was signed in December 2003. It is planned that a total of 61 will be acquired.

Europe

Following the 1991 Gulf War, in which Coalition air forces depended heavily on US Csar assets, several of these services have taken measures to rectify their shortcomings. For example, the Royal Saudi Air Force has bought twelve 9.3-tonne Eurocopter AS532 Cougar Mk 2s with flight refuelling probes, and the French Air Force has ordered four eleven-tonne Eurocopter EC725 (formerly Cougar Mk 2+) for the Resco (Recherche Et Sauvetage au COmbat) role, with options on ten more. The EC725 first flew on 30 November 2000 and the first delivery took place in September 2004. Norway is expected to acquire a special missions version of the Eurocopter/AgustaWestland NH90, with a flight refuelling probe, Link 16 datalink and air-to-air missiles.

Compared to the 24.5-tonne CH-47E, the 15-tonne AgustaWestland International EH101 is a 'lightweight', but it can accommodate up to 24 fully armed troops and it is available with folding blades. The Royal Air Force Merlin HC3 version (of which 22 are in service) is the first British military helicopter with a flight refuelling probe. There are reports of a projected Mk 3+ weighing up to 16.5 tonnes.

Drones

As discussed in Armada International 3/2004, the use by special forces of lightweight reconnaissance drones is well established and growing rapidly. Examples include the 3.75-kg Aerovironment FQM-151 Pointer, of which the US Socom has purchased around 60 systems, each with two air vehicles. The service has ordered 80 examples of the company's smaller (1.7 kg) Raven, which first flew in 2001. The 2.25-kg Aerovironment Dragon Eye has been adopted by the US Marine Corps, which plans to acquire 1026 over a five-year period. Lockheed Martin is producing the Sentry Owl for the US Air Force, which is using it in Afghanistan. In a larger category, the command has also purchased from Boeing two Mavericks (a drone version of the Robinson R22 helicopter), and an unmanned version of the MH-6 Mission Enhanced Little Bird.

The Tactical Aerospace Group has produced prototype drone variants of three helicopters (including the R22) for the US military under a programme designated M2600, and hopes to market at least one of these by 2006. The group has also been asked by foreign services to 'autonomise' several other helicopters.

There is a growing need for unmanned precision delivery systems for ammunition, food and medical supplies. One result is the Aerovironment Hawkeye unmanned logistics air vehicle (Ulav), a tandem-wing glider that is currently awaiting a production decision. Another approach is found with the Canadian Mmist Sherpa, a GPS-guided parachute delivery system. This was first used operationally by a US Marine Corps Reserve KC-130T unit (VMGR-452), dropping food and supplies in a combat support mission over Iraq in August 2004. The CQ-10A SnowGoose is a military version of the powered Sherpa, with a fuselage housing a 270 kg payload, a Rotax 914 piston engine and a GPS-based navigation and control system, all supported by a rectangular ram-air parachute. The CQ-10 can be airdropped or launched from a modified Hummer. The US Special Operations Command has recently ordered 36 air vehicles, which are scheduled for deployment to Iraq and Afghanistan in December 2004.

As outlined in Armada International 5/2004, the Atair Aerospace Onyx is a GPS+INS-guided, reusable and modular parachute delivery system, covering a payload range of 34 to 1000 kg. It uses a highly loaded elliptic ram-air parafoil and a terminal-phase unguided parachute to combine a rapid descent from high altitude (up to 35,000 ft) and a soft landing, with a demonstrated accuracy in 100 drops of just over 50 metres. An adaptive autopilot allows for a range of payload weights and centre-of-gravity positions. Atair has also developed software to avoid collisions when a number of Onyxes are released and flying simultaneously. Demonstrations with five units began in September 2004, and later tests are expected to take this number to 50-plus. The 34 kg Onyx system has been developed under a US Department of Defense Phase I and II Sbir (small business innovation research) contract with the US Army Soldier Systems Center and the Festo Corporation; in addition to independent funding. The 34 kg Onyx recently entered into the commercialisation phase of the Sbir programme.