Sexual Satisfaction and Sexual Self-Disclosure Within Dating Relationships.

Good communication has frequently been identified as important to developing and maintaining a rewarding and problem-free sexual relationship (Chesney, Blakeney, Cole, &Chan, 1981; Ferroni & Taffee, 1997). A number of authors have argued that, specifically, self-disclosing sexual likes and dislikes--that is, desired and undesired sexual techniques--to a partner leads to greater sexual satisfaction and fewer sexual problems (LoPiccolo & LoPiccolo, 1978; Metts & Cupach, 1989; Russell, 1990). Despite the often stated importance of sexual self-disclosure, there has been relatively little research on the topic. The purpose of this study was to investigate dating individuals' self-disclosure about their sexual likes and dislikes to their partner.(1) It is important to investigate sexual self-disclosure in dating relationships, because it is during this period that couples develop mutual sexual scripts and patterns of sexual communication become established.

Disclosure of Sexual Likes and Dislikes

For the most part, research on sexual communication has not investigated the extent of self-disclosure to a partner about sexual likes and dislikes. For example, Yelsma (1986) investigated the frequency, not the extent, of discussion of 13 sexual topics. Other researchers have inferred good sexual communication from couples' agreement on sexual issues and/or understanding of the other partner's viewpoint, but have not investigated the extent of communication directly (Pumine & Carey, 1997; Ross, Clifford, & Eisenman, 1987). Good agreement and understanding may indicate a good initial match between couples' sexual preferences and/or skill at decoding nonverbal behavior, rather than open discussion of sexual likes and dislikes.

Herold and Way (1988) did investigate the extent of college women's sexual disclosure to four target people, including a dating partner, about six specific topics. They found that, on average, the women had talked about sex with their partner in some detail but had not been fully self-disclosing. However, some of the topics that they assessed (e.g., "my personal views on sexual morality") were not specific to the sexual interaction. Further, although respondents indicated the extent of their self-disclosure on "sexual techniques I find or would find pleasurable," they did not indicate their disclosure about the perhaps more difficult topic to discuss, sexual techniques they dislike. Therefore, the first goal of this study was to determine the extent of individuals' self-disclosure to a dating partner about their likes and dislikes with respect to specific sexual activities they engage in. We expanded on Herold and Way by asking men and women about both likes and dislikes regarding five separate aspects of sexual activity. We predicted that participants would report greater self-disclosure about sexual likes than about sexual dislikes.

We also examined gender differences in both nonsexual and sexual self-disclosure. Past research and traditional gender role expectations suggest that women self-disclose more about nonsexual topics than do men (Hendrick, 1981; Vera & Betz, 1992). With respect to sexual self-disclosure, however, the traditional sexual script prescribes that women be sexually naive and that men be directive and assertive about their sexual needs (Byers, 1996). Further, Lawrance, Taylor, and Byers (1996) found that men continue to be more instrumental in sexual situations than are women. Communication about desired and undesired sexual techniques is more of an instrumental than an affective behavior. Therefore, we predicted that men would report being more disclosing of their sexual likes and dislikes than would women. Finally, as talking about sex is often difficult (Fisher, Miller, Byrne, & White, 1980), we predicted that both male and female participants would report greater self-disclosure about nonsexual topics than about sexual topics.

Prior research has identified a number of relationship and individual factors that are related to sexual communication. Rubin, Hill, Peplau, and Dunkel-Schetter (1980) found that college students who were more romantically involved with their partner, who felt more loving towards him or her, and whose partner was more self-disclosing reported more extensive sexual communication. Herold and Way (1988) found that college women who were more committed to their relationship and who engaged in more frequent sexual activity reported greater sexual self-disclosure to a dating partner. They also found that a more negative disposition towards sexuality, sex guilt, was related to low sexual self-disclosure. Similarly, Fisher et al. (1980) found that a more negative disposition towards sex, greater erotophobia, was associated with more difficulty in talking about sexuality. As past research has not assessed self-disclosure about sexual likes and dislikes within lovemaking, it is not known whether these characteristics are also related to this type of sexual communication. However, based on these findings, we predicted that respondents who reported greater sexual self-disclosure would be those who were more erotophilic, had been dating longer, were in exclusive dating relationships, reported greater relationship satisfaction, had more frequent expression of affection, and had more frequent sexual activity. In addition, we predicted that participants who self-disclosed more on nonsexual topics, and who perceived their partners to self-disclose more about sexual likes and dislikes would report greater sexual self-disclosure.

Sexual Self-Disclosure and Satisfaction with Sexual Communication

According to Metts and Cupach (1989), the quality of sexual communication has often been operationalized as satisfaction with sexual communication. Although they argue that communication about which behaviors are satisfying is one of the components of satisfaction with sexual communication, research has not determined the extent to which sexual self-disclosure contributes to perceptions of the quality of sexual communication. Cupach and Comstock (1990) found that relationship satisfaction, sexual satisfaction, and satisfaction with sexual communication were all significantly positively correlated, indicating that the quality of sexual communication is related to both relationship satisfaction and sexual satisfaction. However, they left two areas unexplored that we address in this study. We examined the extent to which nonsexual and sexual self-disclosure were each related to perceptions of the quality of sexual communication. We also examined whether sexual self-disclosure was related to sexual communication satisfaction over and above the general self-disclosure level in the relationship.

Self-Disclosure and Sexual Satisfaction

Couples with higher relationship satisfaction also report greater sexual satisfaction (Byers, Demmons, & Lawrance, 1998; Lawrance & Byers, 1995). Cupach and Metts (1991) have argued that this relationship is bidirectional and that communication affects sexual and relationship satisfaction in two ways. First, they proposed that communication skills in general, and the ability to communicate about sex in particular, facilitate relationship closeness and intimacy. Greater relationship satisfaction, in turn, leads to greater sexual satisfaction. Second, they argued that communication about sexual desires and preferences allows partners to negotiate a mutually and maximally enjoyable sexual script, and thus leads to greater sexual satisfaction. This latter view is consistent with a social exchange framework (Byers et al., 1998; Herold & Way, 1988). Social exchange theories are based on interpersonal interactions or exchanges and propose that satisfaction with various aspects of relationships is based on the individual's perceptions of rewards and costs within the relationship. Thus, open sexual communication is hypothesized to result in more sexual rewards and fewer sexual costs as couples communicate their likes, dislikes, and preferences. Increased rewards and decreased costs, in turn, are hypothesized to result in greater sexual satisfaction (Derlega & Grzelak, 1979; Gordon & Snyder, 1986). According to Cupach and Metts (1991), higher sexual satisfaction results in greater relationship satisfaction.

There are two implications which follow from the theoretical perspective advanced by Cupach and Metts (1991; Metts & Cupach, 1989) which have not been tested empirically. The first implication is that the general level of self-disclosing communication in a relationship and self-disclosure about sexual likes and dislikes each make independent contributions to the prediction of both relationship satisfaction and sexual satisfaction. Cupach and Metts stated "While good communication in general is important for sexual satisfaction in intimate relationships, communication about sex specifically is also relevant. Talking about sex with one's partner reveals one's sexual desires, preferences, fears, and standards. Disclosure of such information promotes sexual satisfaction" (Metts & Cupach, 1989, p. 150). However, for the most part studies investigating the relationship between sexual communication and sexual satisfaction or relationship satisfaction have examined the bivariate relationships but have not controlled for the overall level of self-disclosure in the relationship. For example, greater relationship adjustment has been found to be related to communication in nonsexual areas for both dating and married individuals (Assh & Byers, 1990; Hendrick, Hendrick, & Adler, 1988; Vera & Betz, 1992) and to more extensive sexual communication in married individuals (Banmen & Vogel, 1985). Similarly, greater sexual satisfaction has been reported by married individuals who disclose more about the nonsexual (Fowers & Olson, 1989; Schenk, Pfrang, & Rausche, 1983) and sexual areas of their relationship (Purnine & Carey, 1997). As none of these studies assessed both sexual and nonsexual communication, it may be that significant relationships found between sexual self-disclosure and satisfaction reflect the overall level of self-disclosure in the relationship rather than any specific effect of sexual self-disclosure. In a recent study of married and cohabiting couples, MacNeil and Byers (1997) found that both nonsexual communication and sexual communication made independent contributions to the prediction of sexual satisfaction. However, they did not examine the contributions of these two types of communication to relationship satisfaction.

The second implication of Cupach and Metts' (1991) theoretical perspective is that sexual exchanges and relationship satisfaction mediate the relationship between sexual communication and sexual satisfaction. According to Baron and Kenny (1986), to establish sexual exchanges as a mediator of the relationship between sexual communication and sexual satisfaction it must be demonstrated that (a) sexual self-disclosure is significantly correlated with sexual satisfaction, (b) sexual exchanges are significantly correlated with sexual self-disclosure, (c) sexual exchanges are significantly correlated with sexual satisfaction, and (d) the association between sexual self-disclosure and sexual satisfaction is significantly reduced when sexual exchanges are controlled. A parallel set of findings would be required to establish relationship satisfaction as a mediator of the association between sexual communication and sexual satisfaction.

Some, but not all, of these two mediational models have been tested empirically. As noted above, greater sexual self-disclosure has been found to be related to greater sexual satisfaction in long-term relationships (MacNeil & Byers, 1997; Purnine & Carey, 1997). In addition, within the framework of the Interpersonal Exchange Model of Sexual Satisfaction, Byers and her colleagues have established that both relationship satisfaction and sexual exchanges are related to sexual satisfaction in dating (Byers et al., 1998) and long-term (Lawrance & Byers, 1995; Renaud, Byers, & Pan, 1997) relationships. In particular, we have shown that the higher the relationship satisfaction, the more the level of sexual rewards exceeded the level of sexual costs, the more the comparison level of sexual rewards exceeded the comparison level of sexual costs--that is, the level of rewards (costs) compared to the level of rewards (costs) expected--and the more sexual rewards and sexual costs between partners were perceived to be equal, the higher the sexual satisfaction. Byers et al (1998), however, did not examine sexual rewards and sexual costs separately to determine whether sexual satisfaction was related to higher sexual rewards, lower sexual costs, or both.

We therefore examined the following additional research questions. First, we examined the associations between sexual and nonsexual self-disclosure and sexual satisfaction. We also examined the associations between these two types of self-disclosure and relationship satisfaction. We predicted that nonsexual and sexual self-disclosure would be positively associated with both relationship and sexual satisfaction. In addition, we examined whether sexual self-disclosure would continue to be associated with sexual and relationship satisfaction after controlling for the influence of nonsexual self-disclosure. Second, we determined whether individuals who are more sexually self-disclosing report a more rewarding and less costly sexual relationship and greater relationship satisfaction than do less disclosing individuals. Third, we examined the relationships between six types of sexual exchanges (level of sexual rewards, level of sexual costs, comparison level for sexual rewards, comparison level for sexual costs, equality of sexual rewards, and equality of sexual costs) and sexual satisfaction. We also examined the association between relationship satisfaction and sexual satisfaction. Finally, we investigated whether sexual exchanges and/or relationship satisfaction mediate the relationship between sexual communication and sexual satisfaction.

METHOD

Participants

Fifty-two women and 47 men, not dating each other, who were in a dating relationship of between 3 and 36 months were recruited from an introductory psychology course at a Canadian university for participation in a study of sexual communication. In order to increase the homogeneity of the sample, and because these participants consistently appeared as multivariate outliers in the analyses, eight additional participants who had been dating their partner for longer than three years were excluded from the analyses. Although ethnicity was not assessed, based on other similar research and the ethnic make-up of the university it was estimated that the sample was very largely Caucasian and born in Canada. Participants averaged 19.3 years in age (SD = 1.8). Eighty-five percent of the participants were in an exclusive romantic dating relationship in which they did not date anyone other than their partner. Participants had been dating their partner an average of 13.1 months (SD = 9.4). On average, they had had 3.4 sexual partners in the past (Med = 2), and most had engaged in both intercourse (86%) and oral sex (81%). On scales ranging from never (1) to everyday (6), participants' scores averaged 4.2 (SD = 1.1) for frequency of sexual activities of any type, and 5.1 (SD = 1.2) for frequency of affectionate interaction with their partner, indicating that sexual activities occurred once or twice a week, and affection occurred three or four times per week. Participants tended to be very satisfied with their sexual relationship (M = 30.7, SD = 4.5), their sexual communication (M = 30.2, SD = 4.5), and their overall relationship (M = 30.9, SD = 4.6).

Measures

A background questionnaire was used to collect demographic information such as age, gender, dating status, and sexual experience. In addition, questions on the frequency of affectionately kissing, hugging, and cuddling, and the frequency of any type of sexual behavior were embedded in appropriate places in the other questionnaires. Respondents rated the frequency of their affectionate behavior and sexual behavior with their partner on the following 6-point scale: never (1), once a month (2), 2 or 3 times a month (3), once or twice a week (4), 3 or 4 times a week (5), and everyday (6).

The Exchanges Questionnaire (Lawrance & Byers, 1998) is a 6-item measure of sexual exchanges. Three items require respondents to think of their sexual relationship over the previous three months and to indicate (a) how rewarding their sexual relationship is (level of rewards), (b) how their level of rewards compares to their own expectations about how rewarding their sexual relationship should be (comparison level for rewards), and (c) how their level of rewards compares with the level of rewards their partner receives in the sexual relationship (equality of rewards). The other three items assess costs using the same format. Level of rewards (REW) and level of costs (CST) are rated on 9-point scales with endpoints of not at all rewarding (costly) = 1 and extremely rewarding (costly) = 9. Comparison level of rewards or relative rewards ([CL.sub.REW]) and comparison level of cost or relative costs ([CL.sub.CST]) are also rated on 9-point scales with anchors of much less rewarding (costly) in comparison = 1 and much more rewarding (costly) in comparison = 9. Perceived equality of rewards and perceived equality of costs are rated on 9-point scales with the anchors my rewards (costs) are much higher = 1, and my partner's rewards (costs) are much higher = 9. The two perceived equality scales ([EQ.sub.REW], [EQ.sub.CST]) were recoded such that the mid-point (5 on the original scale), representing perfect equality, was assigned a score of 4, and both endpoints (i.e. both my rewards [costs] are much higher and my partner's rewards [costs] are much higher) were assigned scores of 0, representing high inequality. Thus, higher scores indicated greater equality between the partners.

Three month test-retest reliabilities with married individuals for REW, CST, [CL.sub.REW], and [CL.sub.CST], were moderate as expected, ranging from .43 to .67 (Lawrance & Byers, 1995). Lawrance and Byers (1998) provided evidence that higher levels of rewards and lower levels of costs are correlated with greater sexual satisfaction, supporting the validity of these measures.

The Global Measure of Sexual Satisfaction (GMSEX; Lawrance & Byers, 1998) was used to assess satisfaction with the sexual relationship. In response to the question: "Overall, how would you describe your sexual relationship with your partner?" (bold in original), respondents rated their sexual relationship on five 7-point bipolar scales: good-bad, pleasant-unpleasant, positive-negative, satisfying-unsatisfying, and valuable-worthless. Possible scores on the GMSEX range from 5 to 35, with lower scores indicating less sexual satisfaction. Lawrance and Byers provided evidence that the GMSEX is significantly correlated with other measures of sexual satisfaction. Internal consistency in the present sample was high, ([Alpha] = .90).

The Global Measure of Relationship Satisfaction (GMREL; Lawrance & Byers, 1998) is identical to the GMSEX except that participants rate their overall relationship in response to the following question: "In general, how would you describe your overall relationship with your partner?" (bold in original). The GMREL has been shown to be reliable and to correlate significantly with measures of dyadic adjustment supporting its validity. Internal consistency in the present sample was high, ([Alpha] = .93).

The Global Measure of Sexual Communication Satisfaction was developed for this study using the same format as the GMSEX. Respondents were asked to consider all the sexual activities about which they and their partner might communicate (e.g. kissing, touching, intercourse, oral sex) and to describe their overall sexual communication with their partner on the seven bipolar adjective pairs. Higher scores indicate greater satisfaction with the sexual communication. Cronbach's alpha for the current sample was .88.

The Communication Questionnaire measured the extent of self-disclosure on both nonsexual and sexual topics, using the following 4-point response format adapted from Herold and Way (1988):

   1. I have given no indication to my partner about this.

   2. I have only indicated this in general terms.

   3. I have indicated this in some detail, but have not fully revealed my own
   personal attitudes/feelings.

   4. I have fully indicated this to my partner; they know exactly how I feel
   about this.

To facilitate comparison of the scores on the two self-disclosure scales, mean scores rather than total scores were used for each scale, ranging from 1 to 4. Higher scores represent greater self-disclosure.

The content of the nonsexual communication items were taken from the scale developed by Rubin et al. (1980). Participants reported the extent of their self-disclosure on 17 different items, such as their political and religious views. Two of the items which referred to sexual issues were eliminated to avoid item overlap between scales, and only the remaining 15 items without sexual content were used to compute the mean nonsexual self-disclosure score. Internal consistency for the present sample was high, ([Alpha] = .89).

Sexual self-disclosure was measured using 12 items developed for this study: six items asked about self-disclosure of likes with regards to kissing, sexual touching, intercourse, receiving oral sex, giving oral sex, and sexual variety (e.g., Have you indicated to your partner how you like to be kissed?) and six items asked about self-disclosure of dislikes with regard to the same sexual activities. An additional item assessing the extent of self-disclosure about any sexual problems was not used. Mean scores for sexual self-disclosure were computed such that respondents who had not engaged in a particular sexual activity, as indicated by their responses to sexual experience items on the background questionnaire, were given a prorated score for the sexual self-disclosure scale which did not include the items assessing self-disclosure about that activity. For example, the sexual self-disclosure score for respondents who had not engaged in intercourse with their partner but had engaged in the other sexual activities was based on the mean of their responses to the 10 items assessing kissing, sexual touching, oral sex, and sexual variety. The internal consistency of this scale based on the 67 individuals who had scores on all 12 items was .86. Participants also responded, using the same 4-point response scale, to two general questions about the extent of their partner's self-disclosure about sexual likes and dislikes. Ratings on these two items were averaged to provide a measure of perceived partner sexual self-disclosure ([Alpha] = .67).

The Sexual Opinion Survey (SOS; Fisher, Byrne, White, & Kelley, 1988) is a 21-item scale designed to measure erotophobia-erotophilia--in other words, the disposition to respond to sexual cues with negative to positive affect. Good test-retest reliability and internal consistency, as well as acceptable levels of convergent and discriminant validity have been demonstrated with college students on the original form of this instrument. We used the short form of the SOS, which consists of five items selected to best predict total SOS scores for men and women on the basis of regression analysis. According to Fisher et al. the short form of the SOS is highly correlated with the original version (r's = .71 and .82 for female and male samples, respectively). Respondents indicated, on a 7-point rating scale, how strongly they endorse each statement describing a positive or negative evaluative response to a sexual situation. Higher scores indicate more positive evaluation/affective response to sexual cues or greater erotophilia. Cronbach's alpha in the present sample was .69.

Procedure

Participants were recruited from introductory psychology courses for a study of sexual communication in dating relationships. Participants received course credit for their participation. After informed consent was obtained, participants completed the questionnaire package in small groups, seated sufficiently far apart to ensure a sense of privacy and anonymity. Participants completed the background questionnaire first, followed by the Communication Questionnaire, the Global Measure of Sexual Communication Satisfaction, the Global Measure of Relationship Satisfaction, the Rewards/Costs Checklist (which was not used in the present study), the Exchanges Questionnaire, the Global Measure of Sexual Satisfaction, and the Sexual Opinion Survey, in that order. All participants received a summary of the results at the end of the study.

RESULTS

Extent of Self-Disclosure

On scales ranging from 1 to 4, the mean levels of nonsexual (M = 3.2, SD = 0.5), sexual (M = 2.8, SD = 0.8), and partner self-disclosure (M = 3.0, SD = 0.9) all corresponded to the response indicating disclosure in some detail, but not fully revealing personal attitudes and feelings. Comparison of the items measuring self-disclosure about sexual likes with those measuring self-disclosure about sexual dislikes indicated that participants were more fully disclosing about their sexual likes (M = 3.3, SD = 2.2) than they were about their sexual dislikes (M = 2.7, SD = 1.6), t (96) = 5.0, p [is less than] .001. Participants also reported that their partners communicated more about their sexual likes (M = 3.3, SD = 0.9) than about their sexual dislikes (M = 2.6, SD = 1.3), t (98) = 6.6, p [is less than] .001.

As we had predicted a significant interaction between gender and type of self-disclosure, a repeated measures ANOVA was used to determine whether the men and the women differed in sexual and nonsexual self-disclosure. We found a significant main effect for both gender and type of communication, F(1, 97) = 8.77, p [is less than] .01 and F(1,97) = 52.29, p [is less than] .001, respectively. The interaction was not significant. The women reported self-disclosing more than the men did about both sexual and nonsexual issues (M = 3.1, SD = .47 and M = 2.8, SD = .69, respectively). The effect size for this significant difference was small, E [ta.sup.2] = .08. As well, participants reported greater self-disclosure about nonsexual than about sexual issues (M = 3.2, SD = .54 and M = 2.8, SD = .78, respectively). The effect size for type of disclosure was moderate, [Eta.sup.2] = .35.

Predicting Sexual Self-Disclosure

Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were used to test the remaining research questions. In each analysis, the variables of interest were entered as a block in step 1. Interactions between gender and each of these variables were examined using partial products calculated from centered variables as recommended by Cohen and Cohen (1983). As such, gender was entered in step 2 and the interactions between gender and each of the variables entered in step 1 were entered as a block in step 3. In all of the analyses, neither gender nor the interaction of gender with the variables of interest added significantly to the model, indicating that the relationships did not differ for men and women. Therefore, the results of tests of the gender interactions are not reported below. Examination of the bivariate correlations did not identify a problem with multicollinearity in any of the regression analyses.

The results of the multiple regression analysis predicting sexual self-disclosure from respondent and relationship characteristics are summarized in Table 1. The following nine variables were included in the analysis: erotophobia-erotophilia, number of past sexual partners, length of relationship, type of relationship (not exclusive, exclusive), frequency of affection, frequency of sexual activity, relationship satisfaction, nonsexual self-disclosure, and partner self-disclosure. The set of variables significantly predicted sexual self-disclosure, accounting for 67% of the variance, F(9, 89) = 19.85, p [is less than] .001. The zero-order correlations indicated that participants who had been in their relationship longer, had had more sexual partners, were in an exclusive dating relationship, reported more frequent affection, were more satisfied with their relationship, reported more extensive self-disclosure about nonsexual topics, and reported more extensive sexual self-disclosure by their partner, also reported more extensive sexual self-disclosure (see Table 1). However, only nonsexual self-disclosure and partner sexual self-disclosure were uniquely related to sexual self-disclosure.

Table 1. Multiple Regression Analysis Predicting Sexual Self-Disclosure From Respondent and Relationship Characteristics.

                                      Sexual Self-Disclosure
Variable                            r           [Beta]      sr

Erotophobia-erotophilia           -.17           -.10     -.09
Number of sexual partners         -.20(*)         .05      .04
Length of relationship             .34(***)       .01      .01
Exclusive dating relationship      .20(*)         .05      .04
Frequency of affection             .21(*)         .02      .02
Frequency of sexual activity       .16            .01      .00
Relationship satisfaction          .35(***)      -.04     -.03
Nonsexual self-disclosure          .68(***)       .34      .22(***)
Partner self-disclosure(a)         .75(***)       .56      .44(***)

Note. N = 99. [R.sup.2] = .67, F(9, 89) = 19.85, p < .001.

(a) Due to concerns about multicollinearity, this analysis was repeated excluding partner self-disclosure. The pattern of significant and nonsignificant semi-partial correlations was identical. Therefore the present model was retained.

(*) p < .05.

(***) p < .001.

Predicting Sexual Communication Satisfaction from Self-Disclosure

The relationships between sexual self-disclosure and satisfaction with sexual communication were investigated using a multiple regression analysis (see Table 2). In order to test the specific effects of sexual self-disclosure on satisfaction over and above the influence of overall self-disclosure, both nonsexual and sexual self-disclosure were included in the analyses.

Table 2. Multiple Regression Analyses Predicting Relationship Satisfaction, Sexual Satisfaction and Sexual Communication Satisfaction From Self-Disclosure

                                       Relationship
                                       Satisfaction
Variable                       r          [Beta]           sr

Nonsexual self-disclosure     .50(***)       .50          .36(***)
Sexual self-disclosure        .35(***)       .01          .01
[R.sup.2]                                    .25(***)

                                          Sexual
                                       Satisfaction
Variable                       r          [Beta]          sr

Nonsexual self-disclosure     .48(***)       .38         .28(**)
Sexual self-disclosure        .41(***)       .15         .11
[R.sup.2]                                    .24(***)

                                   Sexual Communication
                                       Satisfaction
Variable                       r          [Beta]          sr

Nonsexual self-disclosure     .51(***)       .33         .24(**)
Sexual self-disclosure        .48(***)       .26         .19(*)
[R.sup.2]                                    .29(***)

Note. N = 99.

(**) p < .01.

(***) p < .001.

Self-disclosure significantly predicted satisfaction with sexual communication, [R.sup.2] = .24, F(2, 96) = 15.35, p [is less than] .001. Examination of the zero-order correlations indicated that individuals who reported greater nonsexual and sexual self-disclosure also reported greater sexual communication satisfaction. Both nonsexual self-disclosure and sexual self-disclosure contributed uniquely to the prediction of sexual communication satisfaction.

Sexual Self-Disclosure, Sexual Exchanges, and Sexual Satisfaction

We assessed whether sexual exchanges and/or relationship satisfaction mediate the association between sexual self-disclosure and sexual satisfaction using a series of analyses (Baron & Kenny, 1986). First, we examined the associations between self-disclosure and sexual and relationship satisfaction in separate multiple regression analyses (see Table 2). Self-disclosure significantly predicted both relationship satisfaction and sexual satisfaction, [R.sup.2] = .25, F(2, 96) = 16.23, p [is less than] .001 and [R.sup.2] = .24, F(2, 96) = 15.35, p [is less than] .001, respectively. Examination of the zero-order correlations indicated that individuals who reported greater nonsexual and sexual self-disclosure also reported greater relationship satisfaction and sexual satisfaction. However, only nonsexual self-disclosure contributed uniquely to the prediction of relationship satisfaction and sexual satisfaction.

Next, in order to determine whether sexual exchanges (REW, CST, [CL.sub.REW], [CL.sub.CST], [EQ.sub.REW], [EQ.sub.CST]) and relationship satisfaction are associated with self-disclosure, we examined the zero order correlations between these variables and sexual self-disclosure using a Bonferroni procedure to protect for Type I error. Higher sexual self-disclosure was associated with higher relationship satisfaction, r = .35, p [is less than] .001. Of the sexual exchange variables, only level of rewards and relative level of rewards were significantly correlated with sexual self-disclosure, r = .30 and .36, p [is less than] .01, respectively. The other four sexual exchange variables each accounted for less than 2.5% of the variance in sexual self-disclosure.

Third, we examined the association between relationship satisfaction and sexual satisfaction, as well as whether relationship satisfaction mediates the relationship between sexual self-disclosure and sexual satisfaction using hierarchical multiple regression analysis. Higher relationship satisfaction was associated with higher sexual satisfaction, r = .82, [R.sup.2] = . 68, F(1, 97) = 201.41, p [is less than] .001. In order to test whether relationship satisfaction mediates the relationship between sexual self-disclosure and sexual satisfaction, we added sexual self-disclosure as a second step in this analysis. That is, we tested the relationship between sexual self-disclosure and sexual satisfaction after controlling for relationship satisfaction. Sexual self-disclosure continued to be associated with sexual satisfaction after controlling for relationship satisfaction, [R.sup.2]-change = .02, F(1, 96) = 5.34, p [is less than] .05. However, the magnitude of the association between relationship satisfaction and sexual satisfaction was reduced ([Beta] =. 14 after controlling for relationship satisfaction vs [Beta] = .41 when relationship satisfaction was not controlled). This suggests that the association between sexual self-disclosure and sexual satisfaction comes about in part as a result of the association between relationship satisfaction and sexual satisfaction.

Fourth, we examined the association between the sexual exchange variables and sexual satisfaction as well as whether sexual exchanges mediate the relationship between sexual self-disclosure and sexual satisfaction using the hierarchical regression procedure described above. These results are reported in Table 3. The sexual exchange variables were significantly related to sexual satisfaction, accounting for 51% of the variance, F(6, 92) = 16.09, p [is less than] .001. Inspection of the zero-order correlations indicated that greater sexual satisfaction was significantly associated with all six of the sexual exchange variables: a higher level of rewards, comparison level for rewards, and equality of rewards as well as a lower level of costs, comparison level for costs, and equality of costs. However, only level of rewards and comparison level for rewards contributed uniquely to the prediction of sexual self-disclosure. Sexual self-disclosure continued to be related to sexual satisfaction when the sexual exchanges were controlled, [R.sup.2]-change = .04, F(1, 91) = 7. 82, p [is less than] .01. However, the magnitude of the relationship between the two variables was reduced ([Beta] = .22 when sexual exchanges were controlled vs [Beta] = .41 when sexual exchanges were not controlled.) This suggests that the relationship between sexual self-disclosure and sexual satisfaction comes about, in part, as a result of the relationship between sexual self-disclosure and sexual exchanges.

Table 3. Hierarchical Multiple Regression Analysis Predicting Sexual Satisfaction From Sexual Exchanges and Sexual Self-Disclosure.

                       r        [Beta]     sr       [R.sup.2]-change

Step 1                                                     .51(***)
 REW                .61(***)      .35    .28(***)
 CST               -.37(***)     -.12   -.10
 [CL.sub/REW]       .60(***)      .32    .26
 [CL.sub.CST]      -.44(***)     -.06   -.05(***)
 [EQ.sub.REW]       .26(**)       .05    .05
 [EQ.sub.CST]       .26(**)       .08    .08
     [R.sup.2] = .51, F(6, 92) = 16.09
Step 2                                                     .04(**)
 Sexual
 self-disclosure    .41           .22    .20
     [R.sup.2] = .55, F(7, 91) = 15.93(**)

Note. N = 99. REW = reward level, CST = cost level, [CL.sub.REW] = comparison level for rewards, [CL.sub.CST] = comparison level for costs, [EQ.sub.REW] = interpersonal equality of rewards, [EQ.sub.CST] = interpersonal equality of costs.

(*) p < .05.

(**) p < .01.

(***) p < .001.

Finally, we used hierarchical multiple regression to examine whether relationship satisfaction and sexual exchanges together account for the relationship between sexual self-disclosure and sexual satisfaction. The seven variables (relationship satisfaction and the six sexual exchanges) together accounted for 79% of the variance in sexual satisfaction, F(7, 91) = 48.00, p [is less than] .001. Sexual self-disclosure did not add to the prediction of sexual satisfaction over and above these seven variables, [R.sup.2]-change = .01, F(1, 90) = 2.37, p [is greater than]. 10. This suggests that relationship satisfaction and sexual exchanges jointly fully mediate the relationship between sexual self-disclosure and sexual satisfaction.

DISCUSSION

This study identified a number of relationship variables that were associated with sexual self-disclosure, including length of relationship, being in an exclusive dating relationship, frequency of affection, and relationship satisfaction. However, only nonsexual self-disclosure and partner self-disclosure uniquely predicted sexual self-disclosure. This suggests that sexual self-disclosure occurs in the context of an overall disclosing relationship. That is, individuals self-disclose more about their sexual likes and dislikes when there is a high level of self-disclosure about other topics in the relationship, and when they perceive their partner to self-disclose his or her sexual likes and dislikes. Various positive characteristics of the relationship, such as commitment, relationship satisfaction, and frequency of affection, may contribute to establishing just such a disclosing relationship. However, it appears that individuals feel most free to self-disclose their sexual likes and dislikes if they not only perceive the relationship to be positive, but also perceive sexual self-disclosure to be reciprocal.

In contrast, individual characteristics played little role in sexual self-disclosure. Although the number of past sexual partners and being female were both significantly associated with sexual self-disclosure, each of these variables accounted for less than 10% of the variance in sexual self-disclosure, and erotophobia-erotophilia was not significantly associated with sexual satisfaction. The finding that the women in this study reported higher levels of both sexual and nonsexual self-disclosure than did the men is consistent with the traditional gender script which prescribes greater self-disclosure by women than by men. Although men have been shown to adopt a more instrumental role within sexual interactions (Byers, 1996; Lawrance et al., 1996), our results suggest that men orchestrate sexual encounters without greater self-disclosure about their preferences for particular sexual techniques. It should be noted, however, that differences in the content (sexual vs. nonsexual) of the self-disclosure accounted for considerably more variance in the level of self-disclosure than did gender, suggesting that both men and women find it difficult to disclose their sexual preferences.

Predicting Satisfaction from Self-Disclosure

Even among this sample of relatively young, sexually- and relationally-satisfied university students, full sexual self-disclosure was the exception not the rule, particularly about sexual dislikes. Participants generally reported that self-disclosure between themselves and their partner was at the level of revealing some detail but not fully disclosing their personal attitudes and feelings. This was true of both sexual and nonsexual topics. To measure self-disclosure, we used the 4-point response scale developed by Herold and Way (1988). A more elaborated response scale might have allowed a greater understanding of self-disclosure patterns, particularly the continuum on which disclosing in "some detail" (the typical response of participants) can fall. It would be useful to differentiate individuals who have disclosed a few details about their sexual likes and dislikes from those who may have self-disclosed extensively, although not fully.

Despite the lack of full sexual self-disclosure, in general, participants were very satisfied with their sexual communication. Nonetheless, individuals who self-disclosed more in general, and self-disclosed more about their sexual likes and dislikes in particular, tended to appraise their sexual communication more positively. Further, sexual self-disclosure was uniquely associated with sexual satisfaction when nonsexual communication was controlled. This suggests that greater sexual self-disclosure has a specific role to play in increasing an individual's satisfaction with his or her sexual communication. It may be that daters do not expect full sexual self-disclosure and thus are satisfied with more limited sexual self-disclosure, particularly if they find their sexual relationship to be highly satisfying, as our participants did. Daters may report greater sexual communication satisfaction with greater sexual disclosure because they value being open with their partner about their sexual likes and dislikes, even though their own behavior does not always match this ideal. Similarly, Lawrance et al. (1996) found that, ideally, both men and women want to be more expressive and more instrumental in sexual situations than is reflected in their actual behavior during sexual activity. Alternately, it may be that nonverbal communication of sexual preferences, which our measure may not have fully assessed, also contributes to sexual communication satisfaction. Thus, participants may have been highly satisfied with their sexual communication because they were communicating their sexual likes and dislikes in a combination of verbal and nonverbal ways.

In contrast, sexual self-disclosure does not appear to have a specific effect on the relationship satisfaction or sexual satisfaction of individuals in dating relationships. Although sexual self-disclosure was related to relationship satisfaction and sexual satisfaction, it was not uniquely associated with either variable when the overall level of self-disclosure was controlled. These results suggest that within dating relationships, it may not be communication of specific sexual likes and dislikes so much as being in a more intimate relationship (of which sexual self-disclosure is one aspect) that contributes to a more positive affective appraisal of the relationship (i.e., relationship satisfaction and sexual satisfaction). In fairly new relationships there is likely to be an overall appraisal of the relationship that influences affective responses along a number of dimensions (Byers et al., 1998; Lawrance & Byers, 1995). Thus, satisfaction with various aspects of the dating relationship may be affected less by specific behavioral exchanges (e.g., sexual self-disclosure) than by this global appraisal. High correlations among the three satisfaction variables in the present sample also suggest just such a global appraisal (r ranged from .79 to .83). However, greater sexual self-disclosure may prevent a decrease in sexual satisfaction later in the relationship: MacNeil and Byers (1997) found that sexual self-disclosure was uniquely related to sexual satisfaction over and above the contribution of nonsexual communication in their sample of married and cohabiting individuals.

Sexual Self-Disclosure and Sexual Satisfaction

Both sexual exchanges and relationship satisfaction were found to mediate the association between sexual communication and sexual satisfaction. Thus, our findings support the proposition that greater sexual self-disclosure leads to greater sexual satisfaction by making sexual interactions more positive as individuals learn the needs and desires of their partner and clarify and express their own needs (Cupach & Metts, 1991). Individuals who self-disclosed more about their sexual likes and dislikes did, indeed, report greater levels of sexual rewards and a more favorable comparison level between their actual and expected levels of sexual rewards. It may be that, in dating relationships, self-disclosure primarily increases sexual rewards and does not decrease sexual costs, as only sexual rewards and not sexual costs were related to the extent of sexual self-disclosure. This may be because daters self-disclose more about sexual likes (rewards) than about sexual dislikes (costs), as we found in this study. In addition, in keeping with research using couples in long-term relationships (Byers et al., 1998; Lawrance & Byers, 1995; Renaud et al., 1997), we found that higher sexual rewards and lower sexual costs, but particularly higher sexual rewards, were associated with greater sexual satisfaction. Finally, when sexual exchanges were controlled, the magnitude of the association between sexual self-disclosure and sexual satisfaction was reduced. Taken together, these results provide evidence that sexual exchanges, in part, account for the relationship between sexual self-disclosure and sexual satisfaction.

We also found support for the proposition that sexual self-disclosure enhances sexual satisfaction through increased overall relationship satisfaction (Cupach & Metts, 1991). Individuals reporting more extensive sexual self-disclosure also reported greater relationship satisfaction. In turn, greater relationship satisfaction was associated with greater sexual satisfaction. Finally, when relationship satisfaction was controlled, the magnitude of the association between sexual self-disclosure and sexual satisfaction was reduced. Again, taken together these findings suggest that relationship satisfaction is a partial mediator of the relationship between sexual self-disclosure and sexual satisfaction.

Thus, the results of this series of analyses suggest that self-disclosure affects sexual satisfaction through two routes. Greater sexual self-disclosure results in more positive sexual exchanges as well as in greater satisfaction with the overall relationship. Both increased sexual rewards and increased relationship satisfaction, in turn, enhance sexual satisfaction. Together, sexual exchanges and relationship satisfaction were found to account for the entire association between sexual self-disclosure and sexual satisfaction.

CONCLUSION

Our results support the view of most sexuality professionals that sexual self-disclosure is important to a positive sexual relationship. However, we have extended past research by demonstrating the mechanisms by which this may occur--through increased sexual rewards and, possibly, decreased sexual costs, as well as through increased overall relationship satisfaction. These results provide validity to the oft-stated call for enhancing sexual relationships and decreasing sexual problems through communication training focusing on self-disclosure about both nonsexual and sexual preferences. Individuals may need particular help with increasing their sexual self-disclosure; particularly their self-disclosure about things that they dislike in their sexual relationship, as they tend to be less self-disclosing about these topics than about nonsexual topics. In turn, couples can use their enhanced self-disclosure skills to make changes to their sexual scripts and/or to improve the nonsexual aspects of the relationship. Enhancement of either of these areas is likely to result in greater sexual satisfaction (Byers, 1999). More extensive sexual self-disclosure is also likely to result in greater satisfaction with the sexual communication itself.

Although it may be that, as proposed, greater sexual self-disclosure results in greater sexual satisfaction, the correlational nature of this study makes it impossible to draw definitive conclusions about the direction of the relationship between sexual self-disclosure and sexual satisfaction. It is also possible that individuals who are more satisfied with the sexual aspects of their relationship feel freer to be open about their (many) sexual likes and (few) sexual dislikes. That is, it may be that sexual satisfaction results in greater sexual self-disclosure, and not the other way around. Longitudinal research is needed to clarify the direction of the associations between sexual self-disclosure and the three satisfaction variables assessed in this study (sexual satisfaction, relationship satisfaction, and sexual communication satisfaction), as well as to determine how sexual self-disclosure changes as relationships progress.

(1) The current study is part of a larger study validating the Interpersonal Exchange Model of Sexual Satisfaction with dating couples (Byers, Demmons, & Lawrance, 1998).

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Manuscript accepted October 29, 1998

E. Sandra Byers
University of New Brunswick, Canada

Stephanie Demmons
Antigonish, Nova Scotia, Canada

This research was the B. A. Honours Thesis of the second author under the supervision of the first author. The authors would like to thank Kelli-an Lawrance, Guy Grenier and Carmen Poulin for their input into the design of this study. In addition, we appreciate the helpful comments of Guy Grenier, Suzanne Lemieux, Lucia O'Sullivan, Lisa Price, Christine Purdon, Cheryl Renaud, and Joan Wright on an earlier version of this manuscript.

Address correspondence to E. Sandra Byers, Department of Psychology, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, N.B., Canada, E3B 6E4; e-mail: [e-mail].