Sexual Behavior and Social Adaptation Among Sadomasochistically-Oriented Males.

Traditionally, sexual behavior has been explained in terms of individual characteristics and early phases of development (Coen, 1988; Glick & Meyers, 1988; Reik, 1949). The sadomasochistic individual has also been the focus in the psychiatric classification of mental disorders which includes sexual sadism and sexual masochism as paraphilias (American Psychiatric Association/APA, 1994). During the last two decades, a number of researchers representing various areas of social science have started to examine sadomasochism, on both an empirical (Falk & Weinberg, 1983; Moser & Levitt, 1987; Spengler, 1977) and a theoretical (Baumeister, 1988) level, as a social phenomenon within its subcultural context. In these studies, with few exceptions (e.g., Falk & Weinberg, 1983; Moser & Levitt, 1987), the vast majority of the participants have been males. They have been found to be mainly socially well-adjusted individuals practicing a wide range of sexual activities, usually engaging in sadomasochistic sexual behavior after other sexual orientation issues have been resolved. The well-being of these men has also been found to be connected to their level of integration in sadomasochistic subcultures. Due to a small number of females in the subject pool (Moser & Levitt, 1987) or the commercial character (i.e., prostitution) of their sexual practices (Falk & Weinberg, 1983), fewer conclusions about female sadomasochistic behavior have been drawn. All of the above-mentioned studies have been done on participants from the United States, Britain, and Germany.

For purposes of this study the definition of consensual sadomasochism proposed by Townsend (1983) was adopted. A sadomasochistic scene usually contains the following elements: a relation of dominance and submission, infliction of pain that is experienced as pleasurable by both partners, deliberate humiliation of the other party, fetischistic elements (clothes, devices, scenery), and one or more ritualistic activities (e.g., bondage, whipping). In addition, it is not possible to fully understand sadomasochism if the primary role that fantasies and role-plays have in sadomasochistic sexual behavior is not considered. The main focus of the present study was to explore different facets of this definition empirically by looking at the sexual behavior of self-identified male Finnish sadomasochists. Also, comparisons between heterosexual and gay men were undertaken, since only a few reports (e.g., Spengler, 1977) have given extensive attention to these groups.

A further purpose was to clarify an under-researched question in the empirical literature on sadomasochism--namely, the relationship between sadomasochistic sexual practices and other sexual activities. The cue-response patterns model of sexual arousal (Suppe, 1985) is suitable for analyzing this question since it stresses lack of flexibility as a primary criterion for paraphilia. The model presents a classification of how specific cues stimulate or inhibit an individual's arousal. Cues interfering with sexual arousal are classified as inhibitory, while cues that neither inhibit nor intensify sexual arousal are seen as nonfacilitative. Facilitative cues enhance but are not necessary for sexual arousal. Finally, cues that are necessary for sexual arousal are named paraphiliac. This differs from the definition of paraphilia in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV: APA, 1994), where clinically important distress or impairment of work, social, or personal functioning is required for a diagnosis to be made. According to Suppe's model, sadomasochism is paraphiliac if it is the only way for an individual to get sexually aroused and satisfied. This also means that if a person also engages in sex without sadomasochistic elements, sadomasochism should not be viewed as a paraphiliac cue for him or her.

Weinberg (1978) emphasizes the importance of sadomasochistic clubs in developing attitudes supportive of sadomasochism. These attitudes enable individuals who are integrated in the subculture to justify their sexual desires. As previous studies (Kamel, 1983; Spengler, 1977) have shown gay men to be more integrated in the sadomasochistic subculture, it might be expected that they would be socially and sexually better adapted than heterosexual men, and this should be reflected in their level of income, education, occupation, and frequency of and satisfaction with sexual activity.

Behavioral evidence suggests that there are more masochists than sadists, and that masochism comes first and sadistic role-taking appears later (Baumeister, 1988; Moser & Levitt, 1987; Spengler, 1977). The gay male sadomasochistic subculture offers more role models and possibilities for engaging in sexual behavior (Kamel, 1983). Therefore, it would be expected that more gay men than heterosexual men have adopted sadistic roles, a prediction that is in contrast to views that sexual sadists are rare among gay men (Morrison, 1995).

In summary, the aim of the present study was to explore and describe the sexual behavior of sadomasochists in greater detail. Due to the small number of female respondents, the study was focused exclusively on male participants. We were interested in demographic data concerning the participants. Further, we explored their partnership arrangements, when they started practicing sadomasochism, which behaviors they engaged in and how often, and if and how often they used psychoactive substances in combination with sex. In addition, the effects of sexual orientation and sadomasochistic preference on these characteristics were investigated.

METHOD

Participants

A total of 164 men who were members of the two sadomasochistically-oriented clubs in Finland participated in the study. Seventy-nine were recruited from Kinky Club, a club for mainly heterosexual people with a variety of sexual preferences. Eighty-five participants were recruited from the MSC-Finland Association, a club with mainly gay male members. Information on the demographic and sexual characteristics of the sample is presented in Table 1 and 2.

Table 1. Demographic and Sexual Characteristics of the
Participants

                               Present        General
Demographic Characteristics   Sample (%)   Population (%)
Age
 <21                              0
 21-30                           29.9
 31-40                           36.6
 41-50                           23.8
 51>                              9.8
Education(***)
 Junior high school              12.9           51.0
 Senior high school              12.8           24.4
 Trade school                    15.2           15.4
 College                         21.3            3.7
 University                      37.8            5.5
Work(***)
 Administration                  23.9           10.6
 Service                         33.1           20.4
 Nursing and care                 8.0            2.4
 Industry                        14.1           38.8
 Teaching                         8.6            4.3
 Other                           12.3           23.5
Monthly Income(***)
(in USD)
 <400                             2.4            7.5
 401-1200                        13.4           32.1
 2001-3000                       25.6           14.6
 3001>                           24.0           13.6

(***) p < .001.

Table 2. Sexual Characteristics of the Participants

                              %
Sexual orientation
 Exclusively heterosexual     28.4
 Predominantly heterosexual   12.3
 Bisexuals                     4.3
 Predominantly homosexual     17.3
 Exclusively homosexual       37.7

Sadomasochistic preference
 Exclusively sadistic          7.4
 Predominantly sadistic       18.4
 Flexible                     23.9
 Predominantly masochistic    35.6
 Exclusively masochistic      14.7

Note. The participants indicated their sadomasochistic preference and sexual orientation by choosing the alternative that they thought best described themselves.

(***) p < .001.

Compared with the Finnish population at large (Statistical Yearbook of Finland, 1993), where about 10% have a university or college degree, the present sample clearly had a higher level of education. This difference was significant, [chi square] (4, n = 185) = 590.69, p [is less than] .001. The present population also had a significantly higher income level than the population in general, [chi square] 2(4, n = 162) = 99.68, p [is less than] .001. Further, the employment distribution also differed significantly, [chi square] 2(4, n = 180) = 108.47, p [is less than] .001. A large number of the participants were working in white collar occupations: Only 14.1% were working in industry compared with about 40% in the general population.

Since the main focus of the study was to compare people with different sexual orientations and sadomasochistic preferences with one another, the participants were asked to identify their primary orientation and preference. Sexual orientation and sadomasochistic preference were used as the most important independent variables in the study. Due to the requirements of the statistical procedures, the orientation and preference variables were, when needed, regrouped so that the exclusively and predominantly heterosexual participants were grouped together, as were the exclusively and predominantly gay male participants.

Materials

The questionnaire. The questionnaire was created specifically for this study. It contained 237 questions pertaining to demographics, sexual behavior, subcultural integration, attitudes towards sadomasochism, mental health and sexual abuse, and family background.

Sexual satisfaction. Two widely used measures of sexual satisfaction were used to assess this aspect of the participants' sexuality. The Sexual Satisfaction Scale of the Derogatis Sexual Functioning Inventory (DSFI) (Derogatis & Melisaratos, 1979) was included as well as the Satisfaction subsection of the Eysenck Inventory of Attitudes to Sex (EIAS) (Eysenck, 1976). This was done to increase the validity of the findings. The correlation between the two measures of sexual satisfaction was significant, r = .73, p [is less than] .001. Analysis of reliability with the alpha-coefficient indicated the following results for the different scales: Sexual Satisfaction (DSFI) = .70, Satisfaction (EIAS) = .79.

Sexual behavior within sadomasochistic encounters. The sexual behavior section included items pertaining to the sexual practices of the participants, including when they started their sadomasochistic behavior and how they felt about it at that time, if they have changed their sadomasochistic preference, and if they use psychoactive substances during the sexual activities. The feelings were assessed with ten Likert-type items modified from the scale used by Spengler (1977) in his study of sadomasochism; these items were translated from the published English version into Finnish. Questions exploring the frequency of sadomasochistic sex were also included, as were ones concerning the frequency of specific sadomasochistic sexual behaviors.

Sexual behavior outside sadomasochistic encounters. The frequency of masturbation outside sadomasochistic encounters was also investigated. The participants were asked if they use any kind of aids when masturbating. Their answers were classified independently by two of the authors into the following categories: no aid used, use of an object designed for a sexual purpose, or use of a fetishistic object (i.e., one not designed primarily for a sexual purpose). This classification was based on DSM-IV (APA, 1994) criteria for fetishism. Interrater agreement was .67.

Willingness to establish relationships. The participants were also asked to describe how they would like to express their sexuality if they were completely free to choose. Their answers were classified according to whether they wanted to express their sexuality within a relationship or not. Interrater agreement was .94. Discrepancies in the above-mentioned classifications were easily resolved in a discussion between the raters.

Procedure

The questionnaires were mailed to all the members of the two clubs with the approval and co-operation of the boards of the clubs. Full confidentiality was guaranteed and the individuals who voluntarily decided to participate sent their addressed and stamped return envelopes to the researchers. As both clubs had members with differing sexual preferences it was emphasized that only individuals who defined themselves as sadomasochists should complete the instrument. This procedure is similar to that applied by Moser and Levitt (1987). In all, 534 questionnaires were distributed, 327 via the Kinky Club and 207 via the MSC-Finland. Responses were received from 186 persons, of which 22 were females. Due to the small number of female participants, data concerning them are not included in the present report. The response rate was 35%, which, considering the nature of the study and the fact that the clubs also had members other than sadomasochists, was deemed to be acceptable.

RESULTS

Demographics

This section gives basic information concerning the demographic characteristics of the sample and explores differences between the different sadomasochistic and sexual orientation groups using cross-tabulation between these variables and the different demographic variables. This method of analysis was deemed to be the most appropriate for two reasons: (a) the demographic variables were categorical and (b) the distributions of the sadomasochistic and sexual orientation variables were not normal, making correlational analysis less appropriate. To locate the sources of significant differences between the observed and expected frequencies in these cross-tabulations, the adjusted standardized residuals in each cell were inspected.

It was found that 61.0% of the participants had leading positions at work, and 60.6% had different forms of service in the community, such as being a member of the local school board. There were no differences with regard to occupation between the members of the different sexual orientation and sadomasochistic preference groups. However, differences were found between the gay and heterosexual participants in the rate of their placement in different occupational areas, [chi square] (10, n = 161) = 32.17, p [is less than] .001. Comparison of the responses showed that the gay participants primarily held white-collar occupations (e.g., administration and education) while the heterosexual participants held blue-collar positions (e.g., industry and service).

No differences were found in age as a function of sexual orientation, but sadomasochistic preference was related to age: There were more sadistic participants in the 21-30 age group, [chi square] (6, n = 163) = 12.41, p [is less than] .05. Further, no differences were found in the participants' level of income as a function of sexual orientation or sadomasochistic preference.

Although a higher proportion of the heterosexual participants were masochists and a higher proportion of the gay male participants were sadists, chi-square comparison failed to reach statistical significance, [chi square] (1, n = 84) = 3.50, p [is less than] .06.

There was a nonsignificant tendency for the exclusively and predominantly sadistic participants to be better educated than the exclusively and predominantly masochistic participants, [chi square] (6, n = 124) = 12.16, p [is less than] .06. In terms of sexual orientation there was some indication that the gay male participants were better educated, although this difference failed to reach statistically significant levels, [chi square] (12, n = 162) = 20.58, p [is less than] .06.

A study of sexual habits of Finns (Kontula & Haavio-Mannila, 1993) reported that 19% were singles in a nationally representative sample compared with 45.1% in the present sample. Of the participants, 26.8% had a steady partner, 4.9% were cohabiting with a partner, and 14.6% were married. There were also 7.9% divorced participants and .5% widowed participants. The mean number of children the participants had was .477 (SD = .94), while the comparable mean for Finns in general was 1.70. A Student t-test was conducted to compare the mean number of children between the heterosexual and the gay participants. For this analysis the exclusive and predominant groups were grouped together to form a heterosexual group and a gay group, respectively. As expected, the gay participants had fewer children (M = .10, SD = .37) than the heterosexual participants (M = .84, SD = 1.07), t(71.63) = 5.23, p [is less than] .001.

Sadomasochistic Behavior

In this section both one-way ANOVAs and cross-tabulations were used to explore differences between the sadomasochistic and sexual orientation groups in their sexual behavior and sexual adjustment. The interrelationships between the sexual adjustment variables were explored by correlational analyses. Analyses of variance were used when the dependent variables were considered to be continuous and their distributions were normal. In other cases, cross-tabulation with the chi-square statistic was used.

The age at which the participants became aware of their sadomasochistic preference for the first time, when they had their first sadomasochistic experience, and when they started regularly practicing sadomasochistic sex can be seen in Table 3. The median age for first awareness was in the 18-20 age bracket, and the median ages of both first experience and onset of regular sadomasochistic behavior were in the 21-25 age bracket. It was found that the exclusively heterosexual participants became aware of their sadomasochistic preferences at a younger age than the predominantly heterosexual as well as the predominantly and exclusively gay participants, F(4, 159) = 4.06, p [is less than] .01. Further, the exclusively heterosexual participants had their first experience at a younger age than the predominantly heterosexual participants and the exclusively gay participants. In addition, the exclusively gay participants had their first experience at a later age than the predominantly gay participants, F(4, 158) = 3.71, p [is less than] .01. In a similar manner, there was a tendency for the exclusively heterosexual participants to differ from the other groups in terms of the onset of regular sadomasochistic activity.

Table 3. The Age at Which the Participants Became Aware of Their Sadomasochistic Interest, Had Their First Sadomasochistic Experience, and Started Practicing Sadomasochism Regularly

Age Bracket   Awareness   First Experience   Regular Activity

    <10          9.3             5.0                1.3
   11-13        12.3             6.2                4.4
   14-17        19.1            10.6                6.3
   18-20        17.3            15.5               14.4
   21-25        19.8            31.7               33.8
   26-30        11.7            14.9               20.6
    31>         10.5            16.1               19.4

The participants also made their own subjective judgements as to whether the sadomasochistic sessions they participated in were light, medium, or heavy. Additionally, they used these same categories to classify the sessions they would prefer and what they thought their partners would prefer. No definitions for the terms were provided as the aim was to assess their subjective perceptions of their sexual practices. The classifications can be found in Table 4. When comparing the distributions of the answers in the actual and preferred categories, it was found that the participants had lighter sessions than they would have preferred, [chi square] (2, n = 160) = 67.03, p [is less than] .0001. Another comparison was made between the distributions in the preferred and perception of partners' preference categories. This comparison made clear that the participants would have preferred heavier sessions than they perceived their partners as preferring, [chi square] (2, n = 159) = 26.73, p [is less than] .0001.

Table 4. The Participants' Self-Evaluation of the Quality of the Sadomasochistic (SM) Sessions

                Sessions       Sessions       Perception of
SM Quality   Participated In   Preferred   Partners' Preference

Light             45.6           20.1              40.1
Medium            48.1           64.8              48.0
Heavy              6.3           15.1              11.8

The different emotional reactions after the first sadomasochistic experience can be seen in Table 4. To assess if the distribution of answers differed across the sexual orientation and sadomasochistic preference groups, a series of one-way ANOVAs were conducted using the degree of agreeing with the different statements as dependent variables (the categories were assigned numbers from 1 to 4 indicating the degree of agreeing). The distributions of the answers in the different categories were not normal. Therefore, they were logarithmically transformed to render them amenable to the analyses of variance. Results from these analyses are also presented in Table 5. From the table it can be seen that the majority of the participants had positive emotional reactions to their first sadomasochistic experience.

Table 5. Emotional Reactions after the First Sadomasochistic Experience

Statements                      Completely Agree      Partly Agree

I felt happy                          47.5                38.9
I felt guilty(a)                       6.9                16.3
I was proud                           17.0                41.5
I felt safe(b)                        47.5                31.9
I thought it was immoral               1.9                10.1
I was afraid about the future          6.9                13.2
I wanted to do it again(c)            88.8                 7.5
I was troubled                         3.8                17.6
I was disgusted with myself            0.0                 9.4
I was glad                            54.1                32.1

Statements                      Partly Disagree    Completely
                                                    Disagree

I felt happy                           8.6              4.9
I felt guilty(a)                      16.9             60.0
I was proud                           23.9             17.6
I felt safe(b)                        13.1              7.5
I thought it was immoral              11.3             76.7
I was afraid about the future          8.8             71.1
I wanted to do it again(c)             3.1              0.6
I was troubled                        16.4             62.3
I was disgusted with myself           13.2             77.4
I was glad                             8.2              5.7

Note. Significant differences between sexual orientation and sadomasochistic preference groups from post-hoc analyses are indicated with asterisks.

(a) Exclusively masochist participants felt more guilt than all the other groups except for the flexible participants. (b) The bisexual participants felt more safe than the exclusively gay male participants. (c) The predominantly heterosexual participants more often wanted to repeat their experience than all other groups except for the bisexual participants.

It was found that 88.4% of the participants had practiced ordinary sex (i.e., consensual heterosexual or gay sexual activity without sadomasochistic elements) before engaging in sadomasochism. The percentage of the participants who no longer practiced ordinary sex was 4.9%; the mean age at which these participants stopped having ordinary sex was 25.07 (SD = 6.04) years. On the other hand, 27.2% of the participants endorsed a statement suggesting that only sadomasochistic sex could satisfy them. The heterosexual participants showed a nonsignificant tendency to endorse this statement more often than the gay participants, [chi square] (2, n = 160) = 5.79, p [is less than] .06. When comparing the different groups of sadomasochistic preference, a tendency was found wherein the exclusively sadistic participants were more likely to have tried ordinary sex before starting to practice sadomasochistic sex than the exclusively masochistic participants, n = 36, p [is less than] .08 with Fisher's Exact Test.

Participants who reported practicing sadomasochistic sex with others in addition to their regular partner or who had no regular partner reported that 46.0% of their occasional partners were practitioners of sadomasochism, while 2.9% reported never finding partners for sadomasochistic sex. Furthermore, 25.0% of the participants who reported being exclusively sadistic in their preference nevertheless reported that on isolated occasions they could also take the masochistic position. In comparison, 36.3% of the participants who reported themselves to be exclusively masochistic were capable of taking the sadistic position on isolated occasions.

When exploring the changes in sadomasochistic preference it was found that 46.3% of the participants had not changed their preference, 17.9% had changed their behavior regarding sadistic preferences, and 21.6% had changed their behavior toward masochistic preferences. Changes toward sadistic behavior were not significantly more prevalent than changes toward masochistic behavior.

The participants' use of psychoactive substances before or during sadomasochistic sessions is presented in Table 6. The most frequently used substances were alcohol and poppers (amyl nitrite). These variables were selected for further analyses. Again, the distributions of the answers across the categories were not normal, and they were therefore logarithmically transformed to make them more amenable to an analysis of variance. The results showed that the gay male participants were more likely to use both alcohol, F(4, 156) - 2.47, p [is less than] .05, and poppers, F(4, 152) = 58.19, p [is less than] .001, than the other groups. It was also found that the more alcohol the participants used, the more satisfied they were with their sexual life, measured with both the Sexual Satisfaction subscale of the DSFI, r = .26, p [is less than] .001, and the Satisfaction subscale of Eysenck, r = .17, p [is less than] .05.

Table 6. Use of Psychoactive Substances Before or During the Sadomasochistic Session

                                  Frequency

Substance        Never   Seldom   Sometimes   Often   Always

Alcohol           15.6    26.3      39.4      16.3     2.5
Poppers           57.1    16.7      19.2       6.4     0.6
Marijuana         91.0     5.2       3.2       0.6      -
Hashish           91.0     4.5       3.2       0.6     0.6
Ecstacy           98.1     1.3       0.6        -       -
Amphetamine       95.5     1.9       1.9        -      0.6
Cocaine           97.4     1.3       1.3        -       -
Heroine          100.0      -         -         -       -
Psychopharmaca    98.5     0.8       0.8        -       -

Note. Frequencies of the use of psychoactive substances reported in percentages.

The frequency at which the participants practiced sadomasochistic sex during the preceding 12 months is depicted in Figure 1. The highest relative frequency (34.1%) was in the 2-5 bracket. A significant main effect of sexual orientation on the frequency of sadomasochistic sessions was found, F(2, 159) = 3.75, p [is less than] .05. The heterosexual participants had fewer sessions than the gay and bisexual participants. The analysis of the effect of sadomasochistic preference on the frequency of sadomasochistic sessions gave some indication of the sadistic participants being more often engaged in sadomasochistic sex than the masochistic participants, although the main effect was not statistically significant, F(2, 159) = 2.85, p [is less than] .06. The average number of sadomasochistic sessions during a month that the participants would have liked to have was 6.02 (SD = 6.21, n = 150). Neither sexual orientation nor sadomasochistic preference had any significant effect on this variable.

[Figure 1 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]

The frequencies at which the participants engaged in specific sexual and sadomasochistic behaviors and role plays during the last twelve months are shown in Table 7. This table also shows the percentages of participants that engaged in a particular practice as a masochist, a sadist, or both. The most common phenomena were oral sex, bondage, and wearing of leather outfits, and the least popular were use of knives, razor blades, and catheters, and the practice of zoophilia. Table 8 presents differences in the frequencies of sexual and sadomasochistic behaviors and role plays between the heterosexual and gay participants. The gay participants were more fond of leather outfits, anal intercourse, rimming, dildos, wrestling, special equipment, and uniform scenes, while the heterosexual participants more often enjoyed verbal humiliation, masks and blindfolds, gags, rubber outfits, cane whipping, vaginal intercourse, cross dressing, and straitjackets. Different role plays were more often involved in the sexual repertoires of the heterosexual participants. Table 9 shows role plays described by the participants in addition to those covered by the questionnaire.

Table 7. Percentage of Total Sample Participating in Various Sexual and Sadomasochistic Behaviors and Role-Plays

                             Participated   Participated as Sadist

Behavior
  Oral sex                       95.1                14.0
  Bondage                        88.4                13.4
  Leather outfits                87.2                13.4
  Flagellation                   81.8                 9.8
  Anal intercourse               81.7                13.4
  Rimming                        77.5                 7.3
  Handcuffs                      73.2                11.6
  Chains                         70.8                12.2
  Dildos                         70.2                13.4
  Verbal humiliation             70.1                10.4
  Cock binding                   68.3                11.0
  Clothespins, clamps            67.6                 9.1
  Mask, blindfold                64.1                10.4
  Spanking                       64.0                14.0
  Gag                            53.0                 7.9
  Rubber outfits                 53.0                 7.3
  Biting                         51.2                 9.1
  Cane whipping                  50.7                 9.8
  Water sports (urolangia)       50.6                 9.8
  Body odors                     45.8                 7.3
  Wrestling                      45.1                 9.8
  Enema                          42.7                 6.7
  Weights                        41.5                 5.5
  Vaginal intercourse            40.2                 6.0
  Slings, crosses, cages         39.0                 7.9
  Face slapping                  37.2                 6.7
  Hot wax                        34.8                 4.3
  Fist fucking                   32.9                 7.9
  Ice                            31.7                 3.7
  Cross dressing                 26.8                 3.0
  Piercing                       19.5                 5.5
  Scat (coprophilia)             18.2                 3.0
  Strait-jacket                  17.0                 1.8
  Hypoxyphilia                   16.5                 3.7
  Electric shocks                16.4                 3.0
  Skin branding                  15.8                 3.0
  Mummifying                     13.4                 1.2
  Knives, razor blades           10.9                 3.0
  Catheter                       10.4                 1.2
  Zoophilia                       7.3                 3.7
Role Playing
  Master/Madame - Slave          54.3                 9.8
  Uniform scenes                 38.9                 9.1
  Teacher - Student              27.5                 3.7
  Execution scenes               25.0                 4.9
  Hospital scenes                15.2                 1.8
  Rape scenes                    11.0                 3.7

                             Participated as Masochist

Behavior
  Oral sex                             23.8
  Bondage                              26.8
  Leather outfits                      23.8
  Flagellation                         23.2
  Anal intercourse                     18.3
  Rimming                              22.0
  Handcuffs                            24.4
  Chains                               23.8
  Dildos                               22.0
  Verbal humiliation                   26.2
  Cock binding                         27.4
  Clothespins, clamps                  25.6
  Mask, blindfold                      22.0
  Spanking                             18.3
  Gag                                  20.1
  Rubber outfits                       20.1
  Biting                               12.2
  Cane whipping                        15.9
  Water sports (urolangia)             14.6
  Body odors                           16.5
  Wrestling                             8.5
  Enema                                22.0
  Weights                              18.9
  Vaginal intercourse                  15.4
  Slings, crosses, cages               11.0
  Face slapping                        13.4
  Hot wax                              14.0
  Fist fucking                         10.4
  Ice                                   7.9
  Cross dressing                       16.5
  Piercing                              7.3
  Scat (coprophilia)                    6.1
  Strait-jacket                         7.9
  Hypoxyphilia                          6.7
  Electric shocks                       7.9
  Skin branding                         9.1
  Mummifying                            5.5
  Knives, razor blades                  3.0
  Catheter                              4.9
  Zoophilia                             1.8
Role Playing
  Master/Madame - Slave                20.7
  Uniform scenes                        9.1
  Teacher - Student                    11.0
  Execution scenes                     11.0
  Hospital scenes                       6.1
  Rape scenes                           4.3

                              Participated as Both
                              Sadist and Masochist   Not Tried

Behavior
  Oral sex                            57.3              4.9
  Bondage                             48.2             11.6
  Leather outfits                     50.0             12.8
  Flagellation                        48.8             18.2
  Anal intercourse                    50.0             18.3
  Rimming                             48.2             22.5
  Handcuffs                           37.2             26.8
  Chains                              34.8             29.2
  Dildos                              34.8             29.8
  Verbal humiliation                  33.5             29.9
  Cock binding                        29.9             31.7
  Clothespins, clamps                 32.9             32.4
  Mask, blindfold                     31.7             35.9
  Spanking                            31.7             36.0
  Gag                                 25.0             47.0
  Rubber outfits                      25.6             47.0
  Biting                              29.9             48.8
  Cane whipping                       25.0             49.3
  Water sports (urolangia)            26.2             49.4
  Body odors                          22.0             54.2
  Wrestling                           26.8             54.9
  Enema                               14.0             57.3
  Weights                             17.1             58.5
  Vaginal intercourse                 18.8             49.8
  Slings, crosses, cages              20.1             61.0
  Face slapping                       17.8             62.8
  Hot wax                             16.5             65.2
  Fist fucking                        14.6             67.1
  Ice                                 20.1             68.3
  Cross dressing                       7.3             73.2
  Piercing                             6.7             80.5
  Scat (coprophilia)                   9.1             81.8
  Strait-jacket                        7.3             83.0
  Hypoxyphilia                         6.1             83.5
  Electric shocks                      5.5             83.6
  Skin branding                        3.7             84.2
  Mummifying                           6.7             86.6
  Knives, razor blades                 4.9             89.1
  Catheter                             4.3             89.6
  Zoophilia                            1.8             92.7
Role Playing
  Master/Madame - Slave               23.8             45.7
  Uniform scenes                      20.7             61.1
  Teacher - Student                   12.8             72.5
  Execution scenes                     9.1             75.0
  Hospital scenes                      7.3             84.8
  Rape scenes                          3.0             89.0

Note. Participation during the last 12 months with the sadomasochistic position specified. For some of the behaviors a distinction between sadist and masochist may not be appropriate (e.g., outfits).

Table 8. Differences in Various Sexual and Sadomasochistic Behaviors and Role-Plays by Heterosexual and Gay Male Participants

                             Heterosexual   Gay
                               Men(a) %     Men(b) %     [Chi]

Behavior
  Oral sex                       96.8           98.9     0.78
  Bondage                        92.1           87.6     0.77
  Leather outfits                79.7           96.6    11.24(***)
  Flagellation                   90.6           77.3     4.66(*)
  Anal intercourse               71.0           95.3    16.92(***)
  Rimming                        70.5           86.5     5.81(**)
  Handcuffs                      74.6           75.0     0.003
  Chains                         78.1           65.9     2.69
  Dildos                         61.3           78.4     5.21(*)
  Verbal humiliation             81.0           65.9     4.14(*)
  Cock binding                   61.3           75.0     3.22(+)
  Clothespins, clamps            69.8           67.0     0.13
  Mask, blindfold                77.8           57.5     6.72(**)
  Spanking                       65.6           67.4     0.06
  Gag                            67.7           44.8     7.66(**)
  Rubber outfits                 65.6           47.7     4.62(*)
  Biting                         52.5           52.8     0.00
  Cane whipping                  63.4           44.3     5.17(*)
  Water sports (urolangia)       48.4           53.4     0.37
  Body odors                     41.0           54.1     2.45
  Wrestling                      23.3           63.2    22.68(***)
  Enema                          37.1           49.4     2.20
  Weights                        48.4           36.4     2.13
  Vaginal intercourse            95.2            0.0   137.12(***)
  Slings, crosses, cages         30.6           46.5     3.78(*)
  Face slapping                  39.3           37.2     0.07
  Hot wax                        34.9           37.2     0.08
  Fist fucking                   26.2           38.8     2.53
  Ice                            37.1           29.9     0.85
  Cross dressing                 52.4            9.2    34.31(***)
  Piercing                       17.7           21.2     0.27
  Scat (coprophilia)             18.0           17.4     0.009
  Strait-jacket                  27.4           10.3     7.33(**)
  Hypoxyphilia                   19.7           13.8     0.91
  Electric shocks                21.3           11.5     2.63(+)
  Skin branding                  18.0           14.1     0.41
  Mummifying                     16.4           10.3     1.17
  Knives, razor blades           14.8            6.9     2.43
  Catheter                        6.6           11.5     1.02
  Zoophilia                       8.1            5.9     0.27
Role Playing
  Master/Madame - Slave          83.9           36.5    33.77(***)
  Uniform scenes                 22.8           55.3    14.76(***)
  Teacher - Student              44.6           20.0     9.80(**)
  Execution scenes               31.0           25.6     0.50
  Hospital scenes                32.7            7.1    15.23(***)
  Rape scenes                    38.9           41.7     0.03

Note. Participation during the last 12 months. Percentages have been calculated on the basis of only those participants who have answered a particular question.

(a) Exclusively and predominantly heterosexual group.

(b) Exclusively and predominantly gay group

(+) p < .10. (*) p < .05. (**) p < .01. (***) p < .001.

Table 9. Role Plays the Participants Reported Engaging in or Fantasizing About

Role Plays

The severe boss and the naughty secretary.

The landlord and the maid, the old gentleman and the little girl, the wolf and Little Red Riding Hood, two dogs having sex.

Public humiliation: my girlfriend tells me to show my whipped ass to my buddies.

The priest and the confessionist.

Father and son, father as active and son as passive.

Guys in jeans having fun together.

The mistress and the carpet.

Arrest scenes and military training.

The father spanking the naughty girl in his lap.

The queen and many slaves.

The garbage truck driver and his helper, sewage divers.

The male barber and his customer.

Sexual scenes in surfing or diving suits.

The Fuhrer and the private or the marine captain and the private, being drilled by a sadistic captain, obedience training, brain washing, crawling in mud.

The frequency of masturbation was notably higher among the participants (almost half of the participants masturbated more than once a week, and an additional 30% did it daily) compared to the average Finnish male (approximately one fifth masturbated once a week and less than five percent did it daily [Kontula & Haavio-Mannila, 1993]). Few participants (11.0%) reported that they always used pornographic materials, such as magazines or video tapes, when masturbating. The exclusively heterosexual participants were more likely to use these materials than the exclusively gay male participants, [chi square] (4, n = 106) = 21.70, p [is less than] .001. When the masturbation habits of the participants were classified according to the procedure described in the method section, it was found that the gay participants more often used materials (leather, rubber) which could be classified as fetishistic, [chi square] (2, n = 153) = 7.90, p [is less than] .05.

Almost half (42.1%) of the participants wanted to express their sexuality in a relationship if they could choose freely. The exclusively masochistic participants were more inclined to do so than other participants, [chi square] (4, n = 120) = 9.48, p [is less than] .05.

There was a significant main effect of sexual orientation on sexual satisfaction as measured with the Sexual Satisfaction subscale of the DSFI, F(2, 157) = 3.43, p [is less than] .05. The heterosexual participants were less satisfied (M = 6.80, SD = 1.90) than the bisexual (M = 7.29, SD = 1.50) and the gay (M = 7.65, SD = 2.01) participants. Sadomasochistic preference had no significant effect on sexual satisfaction. Results on the Satisfaction subscale of Eysenck's inventory were in agreement with the findings of Eysenck (1976).

The correlation of sexual satisfaction with the different emotional reactions after the first sadomasochistic experience are shown in Table 10. It can be seen that negative emotional reactions were consistently associated with low sexual satisfaction. Likewise, positive emotional reactions were associated with high sexual satisfaction.

Table 10. Correlations Between the Statements of Emotional Reactions After the First Sadomasochistic Experience and Measures of Sexual Well-Being.

                                                         Sexual
                                Sexual satisfaction   satisfaction
Statement                             (DSFI)           (Eysenck)

I was glad                             .13(+)              .14(+)
I felt guilty                         -.34(***)           -.29(***)
I was proud                             --                  --
I felt safe                            .21(**)             .21(**)
I thought it was immoral              -.14(+)             -.18(*)
I was afraid about the future         -.35(***)           -.29(***)
I wanted to do it again                 --                  --
I was troubled                        -.35(***)           -.27(***)
I was disgusted with myself           -.39(***)           -.31(***)
I felt happy                           .18(*)                __

(+) p < .10. (*) p < .05. (**) p < .01. (***) p < .001.

DISCUSSION

The results of this study indicate that the participants' level of social functioning is not impaired when compared to the general population on characteristics like income and education. On the contrary, they had a high income level and were highly educated, as has been established by earlier corresponding research (Moser & Levitt, 1987; Spengler, 1977; Weinberg, 1978). Although the participants seemed to have difficulties in finding partners, they still had a positive and ego-syntonic view of their sexual behavior. Furthermore, the sexual behavior of the participants was varied, as most of them engaged in ordinary sex as well as sadomasochistic sexual activities. This indicates that sadomasochistic behavior involves facilitative as opposed to necessary cues for a major number of the participants (Suppe, 1984). However, this finding does not exclude the possibility that the participants fantasized about sadomasochistic scenes during their ordinary sexual activities.

Support for the hypothesis of development from a masochistic position towards a more sadistic position is ambiguous. The vast majority of the participants had not changed their preference, which contradicts Baumeister's hypothesis (1988). In addition, the majority of those who reported a change had changed towards a masochistic position. This hypothesis was also contradicted by the fact that many of the younger participants in the sample were sadists. Moreover, the notion that there would be few gay sadists (Morrison, 1995) received no support in the present study, as the number of gay participants was quite high in the sadistic group. Even if this result was not statistically significant, it merits further investigation as it would indirectly support the hypothesis of development. It would seem that the existence of role models in the gay male sadomasochistic subculture facilitates the transition from a masochistic role to a sadistic role. This is in line with documentation by Kamel (1983).

It seems that the sadomasochistic preference leads to difficulties in establishing a permanent relationship. This was shown in the greater number of singles among sadomasochists as compared to the general population. This can result from difficulty in finding a partner who would share the same sexual interests, because in most cases this requires involvement in the sadomasochistic subculture. Also, the high number of masochistic heterosexual men and the relative lack of sadistic women creates difficulties, a result established earlier by researchers in the field (e.g., Moser & Levitt, 1987) and confirmed again in this study. The difficulties experienced by the masochistic participants were also reflected in their expressed desire for having steady relationships.

The results also indicate that the development of sadomasochistic sexual behavior starts after experience with more ordinary sexual behavior and the establishment of a sexual orientation. Specifically, the exclusively gay male participants became aware of and started practicing their sadomasochistic interests later, which accords well with findings showing that gay male individuals establish their sexual orientation later than heterosexual individuals (Coleman, 1982; Kontula & Haavio-Mannila, 1993). This is also consistent with Kamel's idea of sadomasochism as a reaction to dissatisfaction with the ordinary gay male scene (Kamel, 1983).

The desire of the participants to have heavier sadomasochistic sessions than they currently have can be understood in several ways. It may be that this is a reflection of respect for the other person and concern about harming him or her. On the other hand, these desires may illuminate the fantasies of the participants more than a real desire to transform them into reality. This may indicate that the participants have not been satisfied with their previous attempts to enact the fantasies. Gosselin and Wilson (1980) argue this to be the case as sadomasochistic fantasies may be too specific to be enacted. They also point out that the enactment of a sadomasochistic fantasy demands sensitive communication from both parties. It may also be a question of dysfunctional communication between the partners in that they do not state their needs clearly (Masters & Johnson, 1970). This could also explain the finding that participants perceive their partners as wanting lighter sessions than they do themselves. Further, it may be that club settings direct the behavior of the participants toward more socially accepted models that lead to more cautious behavior. Although these classifications could be criticized for their subjectivity, using them in the present context is motivated by a lack of consensus concerning which behaviors can objectively be judged as heavy or light.

The emotional reactions after the first sadomasochistic experience were consistently evaluated in a positive manner. The finding that the masochistic participants experienced more guilt may be due to a conflict between the masochistic regression and male gender role expectations. Further, about one third indicated that only sadomasochistic sex could satisfy them, which can be interpreted as sadomasochistic sex involving paraphiliac cues for these participants (Suppe, 1985). Also, many masochists (who were more likely to be heterosexual) had not engaged in ordinary sex (i.e., either heterosexual or gay consensual sexual activity without sadomasochistic elements) before starting to practice sadomasochism. In contrast, many participants seem to be flexible in their sadomasochistic preference, in that the persons who described themselves as exclusively sadistic or masochistic could occasionally take the other position.

Sadomasochistic activity does not seem to be associated with extensive substance abuse before or during sadomasochistic sex. However, the use of poppers and alcohol by the gay male participants was an exception to this pattern and could perhaps be understood as a distinctive pattern of the gay male subculture. This conclusion is supported by a similar percentage (46%) of the use of poppers in gay sexual relations in a British study (Smith et al., 1997). It was interesting that alcohol consumption was positively associated with sexual satisfaction. A similar finding concerning a sample of university students has been reported by Sandnabba, Viemere, and Ingman (1996). It may be that low doses of alcohol heighten self-confidence and have a positive, relaxing effect.

The modal number of sadomasochistic sessions that the participants had during the last twelve months was relatively low compared to the number of intercourse events that Finnish people generally have during one year, which is approximately 50 (Kontula & Haavio-Mannila, 1993). This may be due to sadomasochists not being able to have sadomasochistic sex as often as they want. Although the difference in the number of sadomasochistic sessions between sadistic and masochistic participants did not reach statistical significance, it should be explored to determine whether this observation could be confirmed using another sample. There are several reasons for predicting that sadists have more sadomasochistic sessions than masochists. One is that the number of sadists is lower. The second reason is that the higher number of gay male participants among sadists in the present study might be of significance as gay men as a group are more integrated in the sadomasochistic subculture, making it easier for them to acquire partners (Spengler, 1977).

Information on the specific sexual behaviors indicates that, in accordance with the results of Moser and Levitt (1987), flagellation and bondage were among the most popular activities. Additionally, we found that some activities not specific for sadomasochism (e.g., oral sex and anal intercourse) that these authors did not query about were also quite popular. The similarities between the percentages of some behaviors (bondage, verbal humiliation, use of a gag, biting, cane whipping, water sports, use of an enema, face slapping, use of hot wax, cross dressing, piercing, skin branding, and zoophilia) in our study and that of Moser and Levitt were noteworthy. There were some differences (leather outfits, anal intercourse, rimming, handcuffs, chains, dildos, clothespins and clamps, spanking, rubber outfits, wrestling, and scat) between the percentages, some of which can be explained by the fact that the present study included a larger number of gay men.

The higher frequency of masturbation among the participants compared to the average Finnish male (Kontula & Haavio-Mannila, 1993) could be explained by the participants having fewer permanent sexual relationships than people in general. The finding that the heterosexual participants were more likely to use pornographic materials can be explained by their relative lack of contacts with other sadomasochists when compared to the gay male participants. This is also reflected in the gay participants being more satisfied with their sexual lives.

In conclusion, this study describes survey findings on the social and sexual functioning of a sample of sadomasochistic males. Although the results do not suggest significant impairment of social and psychological functioning among sadomasochistic males, a full understanding of these characteristics requires in-depth analysis from a more individual perspective delineating, for example, the developmental background of sadomasochistic individuals.

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Manuscript accepted March 3, 1999

N. Kenneth Sandnabba Abo Akademi University, Finland

Pekka Santtila Police Academy of Finland

Niklas Nordling Abo Akademi University, Finland

This study was financially supported by grants from the Rector of Abo Akademi University, the SETA Foundation, and the Finnish Ministry of the Interior. The authors are indebted to Professor Leif Nordberg and Professor Ralf Lindman for their assistance with the statistical analysis, and to Professor Douglas P. Fry for his editorial assistance. Address correspondence to N. Kenneth Sandnabba, Department of Psychology, Abo Akademi University, FIN-20500 Turku, Finland; e-mail: [e-mail]