Sex Role Attributions of American-Indian Women.Specific research on the sex roles of American-Indian women is lacking in mental health counseling. This article examines the sex role attributes of this population of women as compared to a predominately White normative group using the short form of the Bem Sex Role Inventory. A group of 505 American-Indian women completed the inventory. Results indicate a significant difference on the masculine subscale between the two groups with American-Indian women having higher scores. Available minority normative groups were also compared to the American-Indian women in this study. Implications for mental health counselors A mental health counselor is a professional who provides counseling to individuals, couples, families, groups, or larger systems. A mental health counselor may also have training in educational and vocational counseling (MacCluskie & Ingersoll 2001). are provided. Despite considerable progress made over the past 20 years or so in addressing some of the health care needs of American Indians American Indians: see Americas, antiquity and prehistory of the; Natives, Middle American; Natives, North American; Natives, South American. and Alaskan Natives, the overall health care of Native Americans lags well behind that of all other race groups in the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. . The problem is particularly acute in behavioral health Behavioral health was first used in the 1980's to name the combination of the fields mental health and substance abuse. As an example, an organization serving both mental health and substance abuse clients might refer to its practice as behavioral health or . Although there is wide variation across the country's 554 federally recognized tribes Federally recognized tribes are those Indian tribes recognized by the United States Bureau of Indian Affairs for certain federal government purposes. Description In the United States, the Indian tribe is a fundamental unit, and the constitution grants to the U.S. ; in general, Native Americans appear to be at higher risk for mental health problems and substance abuse (alcohol and drugs) than other ethnic groups. (Provan & Carson, 2000, p. 17) In the 21 st century there remains the need for behavioral health care professionals to serve the health care needs of people. The opening statement paints a bleak picture of the general health care needs of American Indians and Alaskan Natives, but targets specifically behavioral health care needs concerning mental health and substance abuse. The most recent governmental statistics for indigenous peoples The term indigenous peoples has no universal, standard or fixed definition, but can be used about any ethnic group who inhabit the geographic region with which they have the earliest historical connection. provide empirical evidence that mortality rates due to the behavioral health concerns of alcoholism alcoholism, disease characterized by impaired control over the consumption of alcoholic beverages. Alcoholism is a serious problem worldwide; in the United States the wide availability of alcoholic beverages makes alcohol the most accessible drug, and alcoholism is , accidents, suicide, and homicide are greater than the age-adjusted rates for other racial groups in the United States (Indian Health Services The Indian Health Service (IHS) is an Operating Division (OPDIV) within the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services responsible for providing federal health services to American Indians and Alaska Natives. , 1998). The frequency of "co-occurring mental health and substance abuse problems are estimated to be as high as 80%" (Provan & Carson, 2000, p. 17). Mental health issues are the fourth leading cause of hospitalization hospitalization /hos·pi·tal·iza·tion/ (hos?pi-t'l-i-za´shun) 1. the placing of a patient in a hospital for treatment. 2. the term of confinement in a hospital. among American Indians 15 to 44 years of age and the fifth leading cause for ambulatory visits for indigenous peoples 25 to 44 years of age (Proven & Carson, 2000, p. 17). Truly, mental health counselors are essential to the successful treatment of American-Indian behavioral health concerns. In 1997, as estimated 2.3 million American Indians lived in the United States (Indian Health Services, 1998). Thus, mental health counselors may find American Indians seeking their services. Since research indicates women are more likely to seek mental health counseling services (Watkins & Peterson, 1986), it may be necessary for mental health counselors to assess the attributions of American-Indian women so that appropriate treatment can be provided. This assessment of attributions helps the mental health professional understand, predict, and manage the direction of treatment and mental health interventions health intervention Health care An activity undertaken to prevent, improve, or stabilize a medical condition (Martin, 1983). Indeed the benefits of assessing client attributions far outweigh the potential for bias in interpretation from the mental health counselor. Yet, the mental health counselor must be aware of the potential for bias when contemplating attributions of indigenous clients. USING ATTRIBUTION THEORY Attribution theory is a social psychology theory developed by Fritz Heider, Harold Kelley, Edward E. Jones, and Lee Ross. The theory is concerned with the ways in which people explain (or attribute) the behavior of others, or themselves (self-attribution), with something TO UNDERSTAND AMERICAN INDIAN American Indian or Native American or Amerindian or indigenous American Any member of the various aboriginal peoples of the Western Hemisphere, with the exception of the Eskimos (Inuit) and the Aleuts. WOMEN Attribution theory emerged from the social psychology realm. It is described as a framework which explains how people make sense of their own behavior and the behavior of others (Martin, 1983). The key participants in attribution theory are the actors and the observers. In the context of mental health counseling, the client is the actor and the mental health counselor is the observer. The potential for bias exists in assigning attributions based on the interaction of these two key players. To spotlight these potential biases, the mental health counselor should consider four possible explanations for the differences between perceived and actual attributions (Martin, 1983). First, the client and the mental health counselor have access to different information. The potential for the client and the mental health counselor to have access to different information may cause difficulty in identifying the attributions of American-Indian women, thus impeding im·pede tr.v. im·ped·ed, im·ped·ing, im·pedes To retard or obstruct the progress of. See Synonyms at hinder1. [Latin imped appropriate treatment planning In radiotherapy, Treatment Planning is the process in which a team consisting of radiation oncologists, medical radiation physicists and dosimetrists plan the appropriate external beam radiotherapy treatment technique for a patient with cancer. Typically, medical imaging (i.e. . Some of the cultural information not accessible to the mental health counselor may be linked to the sex role attributions of American-Indian women. The social construction of the sex role for American Indians may be accelerated through the cultural tradition of oral storytelling Storytelling Aesop semi-legendary fabulist of ancient Greece. [Gk. Lit.: Harvey, 10] Münchäusen Baron traveler grossly embellishes his experiences. [Ger. Lit. . Cultural stories depicting women and men as equally strong and wise contributors to society are retold re·told v. Past tense and past participle of retell. throughout the life span beginning during early childhood. These stories are used for passing on cultural history and cultural behavioral norms to members of the group (Mihesuah, 1996). These historical accounts are sometimes clouded by intercessions after European contact European contact may refer to discovery:
1. murky; turbid; not transparent. 2. marked by indistinct streaks. translation of the historical sex roles of Native American women This is a list of famous Native Americans. This is a list of Native American women. Please note that it should contain only Native women of the United States and her territories, not First Nations women or Native women of other countries in North, Central, and South America. only blurs more when modern stereotypes are included. Current media representations of American-Indian women are harmful because they place American-Indian women in the past, and in so doing they abandon American-Indian women in the present (Berman, 1989; Merskin, 1996). These women may internalize internalize To send a customer order from a brokerage firm to the firm's own specialist or market maker. Internalizing an order allows a broker to share in the profit (spread between the bid and ask) of executing the order. the visual images (i.e., Pocahontas, Dances with Wolves) as the expected behavior of American-Indian women. Just as American-Indian women may have internalized gender constructs from historical accounts, oral traditions, or modern stereotypes, so too mental health counselors may have internalized gender constructs of American-Indian women from modern accounts or historical stereotypes. Mental health counselors have been exposed to modern accounts of American-Indian women through professional literature, multicultural counseling coursework coursework Noun work done by a student and assessed as part of an educational course Noun 1. coursework - work assigned to and done by a student during a course of study; usually it is evaluated as part of the student's or diversity training. However, many have not had the opportunity to meet American Indians. Thus, the basis for assigning attributions for many mental health counselors may be the primitive representations of American Indians found in elementary textbooks or media presentations filled with historical stereotypical misrepresentations. The second area that may create bias in assigning attributes is that the focus of attention may differ for the client and the mental health counselor. Focus may be based on values systems. Insight into the value differences between American Indians and the mainstream society is necessary for mental health counselors. Awareness of these values is important in assessing client functioning and developing appropriate treatment plans. Therefore, generic values such as sharing, cooperation, present time orientation, importance of the group and extended family, respect for elders, noninterference, harmony with nature, and an inclination to use supernatural beliefs to explain natural phenomena need to be considered (Garrett & Garrett, 1994; Trimble, 1996). These differing foci create discrepancies in the assignment of attributions due to the counselor or client forming assumptions based on their own value systems or preconceived pre·con·ceive tr.v. pre·con·ceived, pre·con·ceiv·ing, pre·con·ceives To form (an opinion, for example) before possessing full or adequate knowledge or experience. expectations. Thus, a mental health counselor may consider the concept of family as being nuclear, when the American-Indian client may assume the counselor is including extended family members who may not be related biologically. The third area for potential bias is the concept that individuals expect others to behave as they would in a given situation. The mental health counselor may incorporate attributions assigned to American-Indian women based on the dominant societal view. Preconceived ideas Noun 1. preconceived idea - an opinion formed beforehand without adequate evidence; "he did not even try to confirm his preconceptions" parti pris, preconceived notion, preconceived opinion, preconception, prepossession of masculine and feminine psychological attributes possessed by individuals are influential in the treatment process either on a conscious or subconscious subconscious: see unconscious. level (Campbell, Gillaspy, & Thompson, 1997). Prescribed behaviors may be affixed af·fix tr.v. af·fixed, af·fix·ing, af·fix·es 1. To secure to something; attach: affix a label to a package. 2. to clients based on the perception of their sex roles (Andersen & Cyranowski, 1995; Morgan, Griffin, & Heyward, 1996). However, Compas and Adelmen (1981) found clinicians' assignment of attributions to female clients was evenly split between accurate and inaccurate or a 50% chance of mistakenly assigning attributions. The fourth and final possible explanation for potential bias in assigning client attributions is that an internal attribution at·tri·bu·tion n. 1. The act of attributing, especially the act of establishing a particular person as the creator of a work of art. 2. allows for better future prediction of behavior than an external attribution. Internal attributions are those that identify a characteristic of the person as the cause for behaviors; external attributions are those that pinpoint the cause of the behavior as the person's environment or situation (Martin, 1983). Understanding the internal attributions of the sex role could prove beneficial in providing appropriate mental health treatment for American-Indian women by increasing the awareness of culturally appropriate expectations. Regretfully re·gret·ful adj. Full of regret; sorrowful or sorry. re·gret  ful·ly adv.re·gret , there is a lack of research on American-Indian women related to attribution, either internal or external. Thus, mental health counselors may not have access to normative data on American-Indian women sex role attributions, which may lead to bias in the assessment process. It is imperative that mental health counselors acquire an awareness of attribution theory, the research that supports it, and the nature of fundamental errors, in order to control for bias. THE IMPORTANCE OF SEX ROLE ATTRIBUTION TO MENTAL HEALTH COUNSELING Just as awareness of the potential for bias in attributing causality causality, in philosophy, the relationship between cause and effect. A distinction is often made between a cause that produces something new (e.g., a moth from a caterpillar) and one that produces a change in an existing substance (e.g. for behaviors is imperative for mental health counselors, so too is gaining specific knowledge regarding client attributions and the relationship to health behaviors. Shifren and Bauserman (1996) conducted such a study examining the relationship between instrumental (masculine) and expressive (feminine) traits, health behaviors, and perceived physical health. Findings indicated a connection between sex role categorical That which is unqualified or unconditional. A categorical imperative is a rule, command, or moral obligation that is absolutely and universally binding. Categorical is also used to describe programs limited to or designed for certain classes of people. placement and the health practices of participants. Psychological androgyny Androgyny Hermaphrodites half-man, half-woman; offspring of Hermes and Aphrodite. [Gk. Myth.: Hall, 153] Iphis Cretan maiden reared as boy because father ordered all daughters killed. [Gk. Myth. as measured by the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI BSRI Bem Sex Role Inventory (gender ethics) ; Bem 1981) indicated better health practices. This finding provides empirical evidence that sex role attributions, particularly androgyny, are associated with healthier functioning than feminine or masculine trait dominance (Shifren & Bauserman, 1996). The conclusion made by Shifren and Bauserman was that "findings in the present study are important because knowledge of personality characteristics associated with health behaviors may aid in future prevention efforts" (p. 862). Androgyny implies resilience and flexibility of traits. An androgynous an·drog·y·nous adj. 1. Biology Having both female and male characteristics; hermaphroditic. 2. Being neither distinguishably masculine nor feminine, as in dress, appearance, or behavior. individual may be assertive as·ser·tive adj. Inclined to bold or confident assertion; aggressively self-assured. as·ser tive·ly adv. in one situation and emotional
in another (McCammon, Knox, & Schacht, 1998). A study conducted in
1995 with college-age men and women found there was a desire to identify
the ideal woman as androgynous (Street, Kimmel, & Kromrey, 1995).
However, a controversy surrounds the definition of androgyny (Bern,
1983; McCammon et al., 1998). Androgyny can be defined as a blending of
traditional sex roles or as a transcendence of sex roles. Proponents of
each definition agree androgyny is the ideal attainment toward healthy
functioning lives. Therefore, mental health counselors may seek to
identify sex role attributes, in particular androgynous categorization,
as a positive indicator of healthy client functioning.
Given the dire description of American-Indian health practices as reported by the Indian Health Services, it is necessary to explore the sex role attributions of American Indians. Many studies have explored the relationship between masculine and feminine traits in regard to self-reports of health behaviors (Downey, 1985; Evans, Turner, Ghee, & Getz, 1990; Shifren & Bauserman, 1996; Shifren, Bauserman, & Carter, 1993). There are no studies that have targeted American-Indian women or men as the primary sample group. Therefore, this study was conducted to gain more normative data on the sex role attributes of American-Indian women to provide a baseline for mental health counseling assessment and treatment. I sought to answer the following question: Are there differences on the masculine and feminine subscale scores of the Bern Sex Role Inventory when comparing American-Indian women and those of a predominantly White normative group? METHODS Participants There were 505 American-Indian women throughout Oklahoma who participated in the study. The ages of the participants ranged from 18 to 85 years, with a mean age of 42 years. The women self-identified their tribal affiliations. There are 39 tribes headquartered in Oklahoma. Some of the women (4.8%) represented tribal affiliations without tribal administrative centers in Oklahoma. Forty-four tribal affiliations were represented in the study. The data were analyzed as an aggregate group of American-Indian women. Loyalty to tribal affiliation was not deemed to supersede To obliterate, replace, make void, or useless. Supersede means to take the place of, as by reason of superior worth or right. A recently enacted statute that repeals an older law is said to supersede the prior legislation. identification as an American Indian by the researcher. A complete list of the tribal affiliations is available upon request from the author. Procedure Participants were recruited at American-Indian activities, including pow wows (83%, n =419), camp outs (3%, n = 15), health fairs (10%, n = 50), and gourd dances The Gourd Dance is a type of dance performed by some Native American nations, especially those of the Southern Plains region of the United States. Though often associated with a pow-wow, the Gourd Dance has its own unique style and customs. (4%, n = 21). The master of ceremonies at each event encouraged participation by making an announcement to the entire audience. American-Indian women who chose to participate came to a table to complete the instruments. American-Indian women present at the activities that chose not to participate did not come to the table. The perception of the researcher was that nonparticipating women made up less than 3% of the women present. It should be noted that the researcher is a member of the American-Indian community and thus, may have been more easily accepted as a researcher by the participants. Data collection included urban areas (Tulsa and Oklahoma City Oklahoma City (1990 pop. 444,719), state capital, and seat of Oklahoma co., central Okla., on the North Canadian River; inc. 1890. The state's largest city, it is an important livestock market, a wholesale, distribution, industrial, and financial center, and a farm ), rural areas, and tribal grounds (Sac and Fox Sac and Fox, closely related Native Americans of the Algonquian branch of the Algonquian-Wakashan linguistic stock (see Native American languages). Sac and Fox culture was of the Eastern Woodlands area with some Plains-area traits (see under Natives, North American). , Missouri-Otoe, Ottawa, Quapaw, Eastern Shawnee). The highest percentages of the participants (31%) were born in urban or rural areas away from American-Indian communities. Participation was voluntary and completion of the instrument was considered implied consent Consent that is inferred from signs, actions, or facts, or by inaction or silence. Implied consent differs from express consent, which is communicated by the spoken or written word. Implied consent is a broadly based legal concept. . The data on sex role were collected as one component of a study, which included level of acculturation and worldview world·view n. In both senses also called Weltanschauung. 1. The overall perspective from which one sees and interprets the world. 2. A collection of beliefs about life and the universe held by an individual or a group. rating instruments. Data related to participants' educational level were gathered. A total of 498 participants reported completion of high school. Those participants specifying completion of 2 years of education beyond high school made up approximately 36% (n = 176) of the sample. Bachelor's degrees were held by 15% (n = 75) of the participants. Advanced graduate degrees were held by 5% (n = 27) of the American-Indian women. This information becomes relevant when conducting the comparison with the normative groups who were primarily college students (Bem, 1981). Bem Sex-Role Inventory The Bem Sex Role Inventory (short form) was used to measure masculinity masculinity /mas·cu·lin·i·ty/ (mas?ku-lin´i-te) virility; the possession of masculine qualities. mas·cu·lin·i·ty n. 1. The quality or condition of being masculine. 2. and femininity Femininity Belphoebe perfect maidenhood; epithet of Elizabeth I. [Br. Lit.: Faerie Queene] Darnel, Aurelia personification of femininity. [Br. Lit. psychological constructs (Bern, 1981). The short form has been determined to yield more reliable scores than the full version (Campbell et al., 1997). The intended use of the instrument was for research on psychological androgyny (Bieger, 1984). Thirty items on the pencil and paper pencil and paper - An archaic information storage and transmission device that works by depositing smears of graphite on bleached wood pulp. More recent developments in paper-based technology include improved "write-once" update devices which use tiny rolling heads similar to mouse short form were used to rate personality characteristics in three areas: femininity, masculinity, and neutral. A Likert type scale ranging from 1 (never or almost never true) to 7 (always or almost always true) was used by the participants for self-rating. Reliability for the BSRI was established by using internal consistency In statistics and research, internal consistency is a measure based on the correlations between different items on the same test (or the same subscale on a larger test). It measures whether several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce similar scores. and test-retest measures using Bem's 1973 and 1978 studies. Normative data on the BSRI were gathered and analyzed in a 1978 study by Bern (1981). This study involved 816 (340 female and 476 male) students from Stanford. The mean scores on the BSRI short form for the female Stanford students were feminine 5.57 (SD = .76) and masculine 4.78 (SD = .81). Other group samples were collected to provide normative samples (Bem, 1981). These groups included Black undergraduates (n = 63), White undergraduates (n = 32), Hispanic undergraduates (n = 35), and adults ages 31-65 (n = 55). A comparison of women from these normative groups to the American-Indian women in this study was conducted to determine if there are significant differences between the two groups. RESULTS The 30-item BSRI short form used for the current study yielded an alpha coefficient of 0.92. The two subscales included in the BSRI established alpha coefficients of masculine 0.85 and feminine 0.92. Means and standard deviations In statistics, the average amount a number varies from the average number in a series of numbers. (statistics) standard deviation - (SD) A measure of the range of values in a set of numbers. for the American-Indian women participating were feminine (M = 5.70, SD = 1.08) and masculine (M= 5.25, SD = 1.05). Results were analyzed using an independent samples t tests comparing BSRI masculine and feminine subscale scores for women in the normative groups--Stanford sample, Latina undergraduates, African-American undergraduates, and adult women age 31-65--(Bem, 1981) and the American-Indian women in this study. This analysis revealed significant differences between the American-Indian women on the masculine subscale when compared to the Stanford sample (t (843) = 6.71;p [is less than] .001; ES = .5) and to the adult women normative sample (t (558) = 3.72; p [is less than] .001; ES = .6). Mean scores indicate that American-Indian women scored significantly higher on the masculine subscale than did women in the Stanford sample and in the adult women sample (AI women, M = 5.25, SD = 1.05; Stanford sample women, M= 4.78, SD = .81; and adult women sample, M= 4.71, SD = .94). However, the analysis failed to reveal any significant differences between these two normative groups and American-Indian women on the feminine subscale. Thus, it would appear American-Indian women have similar scores on the feminine subscale to women in the 1978 Stanford sample and adult women age 31-65. Further comparison of the American-Indian women's BSRI scores to normative information for minority groups was conducted. Results were analyzed using an independent samples t test. Normative data for women in a Latina sample and African-American sample were taken from the BSRI manual (Bem, 1981). No significant differences were found on the masculine or feminine subscale scores between the Latina women and the American-Indian women indicating similar scores on both subscales. However, the analysis revealed a significant difference between African-American women and American-Indian women on the feminine subscale scores, (t (565) = 4.50; p [is less than] .001; ES = .09). A closer examination of means indicated African-American women scored significantly higher on the feminine subscale than did American-Indian women (African-American women, M= 5.79, SD = .88; American-Indian women, M = 5.70, SD = 1.08). The BSRI is designed to allow classification into four categories. A calculated difference score from the masculine and feminine subscales determines placement into the two traditional sex-typed categories (masculine and feminine) and two gender transcendent categories (androgynous and undifferentiated undifferentiated /un·dif·fer·en·ti·at·ed/ (un-dif?er-en´she-at-ed) anaplastic. un·dif·fer·en·ti·at·ed adj. Having no special structure or function; primitive; embryonic. ; Bieger, 1984). The difference between the gender-transcended categories is based on level of self-esteem (Bern, 1981). Bern (1977) redefined the original androgynous classification into the two separate categories. The undifferentiated category was used to distinguish individuals who transcended gender role classification but held low masculine and low feminine score, whereas, androgynous individuals were measured as having high masculine and high feminine scores (Bem, 1977). Individuals designated as androgynous or undifferentiated are similar in not being sex-typed by traditional gender terminology. In this study, the androgynous (48%, n = 242)and undifferentiated (17%, n = 86) categories combined account for 65% or 328 of the American-Indian women participants. The remaining participants placed in the masculine (20%, n = 101) and feminine (15%, n = 76) categories. The categorical placement of American-Indian women into the four classifications was compared to a normative sample of 290 women presented by Bem (1977, p.198). Both groups were categorized cat·e·go·rize tr.v. cat·e·go·rized, cat·e·go·riz·ing, cat·e·go·riz·es To put into a category or categories; classify. cat using the median split method presented in the BSRI manual (Bern, 1981, p.63). Women in the 1977 sample had the largest percentage classified in the feminine category (34%, n = 99). The masculine category held 16% (n = 47) of the women. The androgynous (29%, n = 85) and undifferentiated (20%, n = 59) categories accounted for 49% of the sample (n = 142). DISCUSSION The potential bias due to differences between perceived and actual attributions of American-Indian women may be decreased through a discussion of the outcomes from this study. The finding that American-Indian women scored significantly higher on the masculine subscale of the BSRI than the normative group suggests traditional masculine-sex-typed adjectives may be more desirable for American-Indian women. The masculine subscale included words such as: acts as a leader, aggressive, assertive, and defends own beliefs (Bem, 1981). For a complete list the reader is referred to the BSRI manual. The BSRI holds at its foundation the construct that a "traditionally sex-typed person is someone who is highly attuned at·tune tr.v. at·tuned, at·tun·ing, at·tunes 1. To bring into a harmonious or responsive relationship: an industry that is not attuned to market demands. 2. to cultural [meaning dominant American] definitions of sex-appropriate behavior and who uses such definitions as the ideal standard against which her or his own behavior is to be evaluated." (Bem, 1981, p. 5). This means that traditionally sex-typed people monitor their behavior to match "with an idealized i·de·al·ize v. i·de·al·ized, i·de·al·iz·ing, i·de·al·iz·es v.tr. 1. To regard as ideal. 2. To make or envision as ideal. v.intr. 1. image of femininity or masculinity, a goal that she or he presumably pre·sum·a·ble adj. That can be presumed or taken for granted; reasonable as a supposition: presumable causes of the disaster. accomplishes both by selecting behaviors and attributes that enhance the image and by avoiding behaviors and attributes that violate the image" (Bem, 1981, p. 5). These behaviors and attributes are based on what is deemed desirable for a man or woman in the dominant U.S. society. Considering that American Indians function within the dominant U.S. society, especially if they live off reservation, it appears that this concept might be a logical assumption. However, the American-Indian women in this sample did not adhere to adhere to verb 1. follow, keep, maintain, respect, observe, be true, fulfil, obey, heed, keep to, abide by, be loyal, mind, be constant, be faithful 2. this construct. The smallest percentage categorical placement was in the feminine category with only 15% (n = 76). Thus, it might be ascertained that American-Indian women do not fit the dominant U.S. society norms for traditional sex typing. The significantly higher masculine scale scores of American-Indian women best demonstrate this lack of conformity with the dominant U.S. society when compared to the normative group scores. However, it should be noted that the American-Indian women in this sample did not differ significantly on the masculine subscales from the African Americans African American Multiculture A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. See Race. or Latinas in the normative sample. This suggests minority women may tend to score higher on the masculine subscale, although further research is required before such an assumption can be made. Another area needing further research concerns the finding of the significant difference on the feminine subscale scores between African-American women and American-Indian women. It may be concluded that even though the difference was statistically significant it may not be clinically significant due to the small effect size. Thus, further research is required to determine true population differences. Additionally, distribution of African-American women into the four categorical placements may prove beneficial in future research. This may have provided valuable insight as to the difference between the two groups. If the reader accepts the premise that American-Indian women do not conform to Verb 1. conform to - satisfy a condition or restriction; "Does this paper meet the requirements for the degree?" fit, meet coordinate - be co-ordinated; "These activities coordinate well" the dominant U.S. society's traditional sex typing, how do we account for the similarities in feminine scale scores between the other normative groups? These findings suggest that American-Indian women embrace the feminine characteristics measured by the BSRI as desirable as did the women in the normative group. These traits include such words as affectionate, cheerful, compassionate, and sensitive to the needs of others (Bem, 1981). The large percentage of American-Indian women placing in the androgynous classification indicates high scores on both the masculine and feminine subscales. According to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. Bem (1977) and the Shifren and Bauserman (1996) findings, this implies that the American-Indian women in this study had higher levels of self-esteem and healthier functioning. Given the poor health statistics provided by the Indian Health Services (1998), it does not seem logical that this would be the case. Further research is necessary to determine the Shifren and Bauserman (1996) findings are relevant to this population. There may be incongruencies that may confound con·found tr.v. con·found·ed, con·found·ing, con·founds 1. To cause to become confused or perplexed. See Synonyms at puzzle. 2. adequate understanding, prediction, treatment planning, or mental health interventions of American-Indian women by mental health counselors. Implications for Counselors The results of this study provide three ramifications ramifications npl → Auswirkungen pl for mental health counselors. First, there appears to be a tendency for American-Indian women to classify themselves as being psychologically androgynous. Mental health counselors gaining this information may be more apt to explore the worldview of their clients who are American-Indian women to gain access to information necessary for treatment planning. Second, androgynous behaviors may be the norm for American-Indian women, therefore, the expectation that others will behave as you would in a given situation may arise in treatment. Bem theorized to be androgynous was desirable so as to allow flexibility in situations where it would be more advantageous to the individual to exhibit masculine or feminine behaviors. Individuals who classify as androgynous are believed to choose behaviors atypical atypical /atyp·i·cal/ (-i-k'l) irregular; not conformable to the type; in microbiology, applied specifically to strains of unusual type. a·typ·i·cal adj. of their gender at an increased rate than individuals in the other classifications (Bieger, 1984). This author speculates American-Indian women have developed into more androgynous individuals due to adaptation to living and existing in the dual cultural environment. From the author's anecdotal anecdotal /an·ec·do·tal/ (an?ek-do´t'l) based on case histories rather than on controlled clinical trials. anecdotal adjective Unsubstantiated; occurring as single or isolated event. experience, these women in counseling sessions may exhibit cross-gender behaviors more frequently than other groups due to the development of cultural survival skills. The third ramification ramification /ram·i·fi·ca·tion/ (ram?i-fi-ka´shun) 1. distribution in branches. 2. a branching. ram·i·fi·ca·tion n. A branching shape or arrangement. from this study concerns what appears to be an internalized attribution toward androgyny for American-Indian women. Given that internal attributions are better predictors of future behaviors, mental health counselors may need to consider the behavioral choices of American-Indian women through the lenses of sex role attributions. Three general recommendations are presented in an attempt to provide practical information for the assessment of American-Indian women. 1. Mental health counselors providing counseling services to American-Indian women need to understand these clients may be exhibiting androgynous characteristics, which may be atypical of their general female clientele. 2. Mental health counselors need to be aware that some contradictory evidence exists concerning the characteristics of androgyny (Harrison & Pennell, 1989). On the one hand, androgyny is associated with positive self-esteem, social adeptness, adaptability, and fewer psychological problems. Yet, on the other hand, androgyny adds to escalated work stress, less overall emotional adjustment, and inappropriate behavioral decision making (Harrison & Pennell, 1989). 3. Mental health counselors need to clearly identify the internalized attributions of American-Indian women to allow for the possibility of predicting future behaviors. Limitations of the Study Participants who completed the instruments were in attendance at activities designated as American-Indian gatherings throughout Oklahoma and participated on a voluntary basis. Therefore, participants who completed the instruments may have provided information much different from those who chose not to participate or from American Indians in other geographic areas. Therefore, these results should not be generalized to American-Indian women in other geographic locations until further research is conducted. The Bem Sex Role Inventory (short form) contained an item as an example, which created some discontent with the American-Indian women completing the instrument. The word sly was used as an example. A couple of the women refused to complete the BSRI because of the use of the word sly. They wrote comments in the margin on the instrument stating the word sly was not a good word to use with American-Indian people. The sample items were not included in the scoring. Overall scores were not effected by the word sly since it was not an item. Future researchers using the BSRI with American-Indian people should refrain from using the word sly as an example. A major limitation to this study is the comparison of contemporary data with old norms on the BSRI. It may be American women in general have become more androgynous in their behaviors. Thus the use of old norms may have skewed skewed curve of a usually unimodal distribution with one tail drawn out more than the other and the median will lie above or below the mean. skewed Epidemiology adjective Referring to an asymmetrical distribution of a population or of data these results. The possibility that there may not be a significant difference between contemporary norms and the current sample needs to be emphasized as a limitation of the study. Further research is required to eliminate this concern. CONCLUSION Mental health counselors must be encouraged to consider sex role attributes of American-Indian women and note the possible propensity toward psychological androgyny as a cultural characteristic. This knowledge and understanding can benefit American-Indian clients in counseling sessions by helping mental health professionals avoid possible stereotypical biases. Recommendations for future study should include follow-up studies that include larger sample sizes from the various tribal affiliations to allow further within-group comparisons. Also, studies using the BSRI with American-Indian men would broaden the exploration of sex role attributes of American-Indian populations. Carefully documented case studies of American-Indian clients by mental health professionals could be invaluable to understanding the impact of sex role attributes on the healthy daily functioning of these clients. The tendency not to have traditional sex typing may be indicative of Oklahoma American-Indian women due to predominance pre·dom·i·nance also pre·dom·i·nan·cy n. The state or quality of being predominant; preponderance. 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