Serving the preschool gifted child: programming and resources.

The instruction of young gifted children must be grounded in an understanding of learning characteristics and developmentally appropriate assessment practices. The intersection of these concepts has strong implications for serving gifted preschoolers and is influenced by the assimilation of information from the fields of both early childhood and gifted education (Barbour, 1992; Barbour & Shaklee, 1998; Hodge & Kemp, 2000; F. A. Karnes, Manning, Besnoy, Cukierkorn, & Houston, 2005; Snowden, 1995; Walker, Hafenstein, & Crow-Enslow, 1999). In order to understand this unique population of students and how best to serve them, it is helpful to consider high ability or the potential for giftedness in light of the asynchronous developmental patterns that young children frequently exhibit (Edwards, 2005; Roeper, 1977; Rotigel, 2003). Intellectual, socio-emotional, and motor development often proceed unevenly in young children (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997). This pattern is especially evident in young gifted students. For example, a gifted preschooler might have a remarkable vocabulary and ability to engage in conversation, but his or her motor skills may be developing at similar rates to their age-peers. The child may display gifted characteristics in one area and not in another. Table 1 gives an overview of the cognitive and affective characteristics of high-ability preschoolers. Early language ability is the most often noted cognitive characteristic of these children (Eby & Smutny, 1991; Feldhusen & Kolloff, 1979; Perez, 1980; Robinson, 1993). Precocious reading is also frequently cited by parents and caregivers (Eby & Smutny; Jackson, 1992; Robinson), and reports of early emphathy development and emotional intensity are common (Eby & Smutny; Feldhusen & Kolloff; Hafenstein & Tucker, 1995; Kitano, 1982; Robinson). It is important, however, to remember the heterogeneous and asynchronous nature of these children. Development in gifted preschoolers does not always follow the Piagetian age-stage path (Tannenbaum, 1992). These children experience the world in qualitatively different ways from their age-peers, making it critical for educators to provide programming that is flexible and individualized (Rotigel, 2003).

An important consideration in the optimal instruction of high-ability and young gifted children is a working knowledge of developmentally appropriate assessment practices. According to Shepard (1994), "the content of assessments should reflect and model progress toward important learning goals" (p. 209). It is essential, in choosing assessments, to evaluate the ways in which results will be used to benefit the child. While many assessments are intended for use in screening and identification of students for program participation, other assessments are more appropriately used for different purposes. Beyond the initial identification of students for a program, assessments can be used for guiding curriculum development for an individual student or for a group of students. The purpose must be determined prior to an assessment being administered (Wortham, 2005).

Characteristics of Effective Programming

Programs for gifted and high-ability preschoolers should be characterized by a balance between child-centered/directed and teacher-selected/directed activities (Barclay & Benelli, 1994; Hertzog & Fowler, 1999; Nuttall, 2003; Walker et al., 1999; Wright & Coulianos, 1991). This type of structure is based on the following understanding: Learning is developmentally oriented, acting on the environment, based on dialogue, making decisions, and integrating knowledge (Edwards, 2005; M. B. Karnes, Shwedel, & Kemp, 1985). Based on these concepts, appropriate programming for gifted preschool children can be designed around the three elements: integrated curriculum, ongoing evaluation, and parental involvement.

Integrated Curriculum

Developmentally appropriate practice for the gifted preschooler must address both the asynchronous development of the young gifted child as well as the child's emerging skills (Morelock & Morrison, 1999). While complex and sophisticated concepts should be provided to meet the child's advanced thought processes, sensitivity is also required to possible limitations in social, emotional, or physical domains. Some projects may cause extreme frustration in young gifted children if their uneven development is not considered (Robinson, 1993; Roedell, Jackson, & H. B. Robinson, 1980). "Development advances when children have opportunities to practice newly acquired skills as well as when they experience a challenge just beyond their present level of mastery" (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997, p.14).

Cline (1998) suggests curricular modifications for high-ability preschoolers. These include enriching multidisciplinary units of instruction to provide depth and breadth to learning; specific instruction in research skills to facilitate scientific experimentation, and teaching strategies such as creative problem solving and divergent thinking to equip children with the metacognitive tools to generate new learning. Acceleration is another recommended option for gifted preschoolers (Colangelo, Assouline, & Gross, 2004; Feldhusen, 1992); however, acceleration of content for gifted preschoolers must be delivered in a manner that is sensitive to their unique developmental needs. In others words, it is not enough to simply provide young gifted children with advanced academic offerings--the curriculum must be differentiated (M. B. Karnes et al., 1985).

Young gifted children should be involved in the process of determining instructional content because curriculum should be drawn from their interests (Parke & Ness, 1988). Basing the curriculum on children's interests will also help them take responsibility for their education and set the stage for continued growth and learning. An example of preschool curriculum based on student input is the Reggio Emilia approach developed in Italy by Louis Malaguzzi (Barbour & Shaklee, 1998; Edwards, 2005; Rankin, 2004). This program is referred to as an "emergent curriculum" because teachers observe their students to determine their precise needs and interests for planning future activities. Barbour and Shaklee present this approach as a viable alternative to present programs for young gifted children.

The Reggio Emilia approach is based on six principles:

1. Careful preparation of the learning environment to meet learner needs is essential.

2. Focus should be placed on the relationships among parents, teachers, and children.

3. Education should be viewed as an active process.

4. Teachers must define, reflect on, and redefine their philosophies of teaching.

5. Curriculum must be child-centered and focused on children's rights.

6. The concept of emergent curriculum is key.

Maker's framework for gifted preschool curricula may help to organize the different curriculum strategies and concerns that are mentioned by several authors. Four dimensions of curriculum are recommended--differentiated content, process-skill development, product development, and the creation of a learning environment--to guide the strategies in the classroom for young gifted children (Maker, 1986; Maker & Nielson, 1996). A sampling of curriculum strategies and selected Internet resources is presented in Table 2.

Differentiated Content

The use of broad-based topics and problems will also allow for deep exploration of academic and interest areas (Kaplan, 1980; Samuels, 2005; Vydra & Leimbach, 1998). For preschool-aged children, content should come from several domains, including aesthetic, affective, cognitive, language, physical, and social domains (Kostelnik, Soderman, & Whiren, 2004). For the gifted preschooler, it is possible to differentiate the content in each of these areas. Teachers should not shy away from presenting the complex or abstract underlying themes that are unique to disciplines or fields of study (Baum, 1987; Ros, 2002). For example, isolated topics such as money or temperature, typically covered in kindergarten and first-grade math curricula, are often taught superficially in preschool by asking the students to identify coins and read a thermometer. A curricular unit for gifted preschoolers in mathematics may center on the broader concept of decimals as part of the base-10 number system. High-ability preschoolers may be able to grasp the idea of parts of a whole or fractions of larger value such as quarter dollars and the like. When a broader principle is explored with young gifted children, their learning transfers to several areas and they understand the connection between concepts (Vydra & Leimbach). The interrelationship of ideas is further enhanced using problem solving, analogical reasoning, pictures in an analogy format, and other activities that promote inquiry (Caropreso, 1994; Kitano, 1982; Koopmans-Dayton & Feldhusen, 1987). Young gifted children may also be able to handle sophisticated cognitive skills such as those required to apply complex spatial concepts of math and geometry (Lempers, Block, Scott, & Draper, 1987).

The scientific process, including the steps of hypothesis testing and experimentation, is particularly well suited as a theme for gifted preschoolers. Plowman (1987) suggests that gifted preschoolers investigate the parallel themes of humans and their environments, and animals and their habitats. A child's physical world offers a wealth of topics to explore, including images and everyday materials in their own homes and neighborhoods (Gould, Thorpe, & Weeks, 2001 ; Maker, 1986; Plowman; Rotigel, 2003).

Curriculum for the gifted should also address the affective domain to promote healthy self-concept and self-esteem. Teachers of the young gifted need to teach empathy (Abroms, 1982). Cognitive skills such as perspective taking may be enhanced by reading and discussing books about feelings with the children and using puppetry or other creative role-playing activities (Abroms & Gollin, 1980; Lempers et al., 1987). This will help children interpret the behavior and feelings of self and others (M. B. Karnes, 1983). Young gifted children need to learn about individual diversity, in part to help them understand their own differences (Vydra & Leimbach, 1998). They also need to acquire effective interpersonal skills in order to cope with peers of differing abilities. Curriculum for the gifted at the preschool level includes an emphasis on play and learning within a social context. Gifted children should be given the opportunity to interact with other gifted children of the same age, even if students must be transported to another facility (M. B. Karnes).

Process Skill Development

A curriculum based on developmental characteristics and individualized instruction should provide activities that enhance cognitive abilities and higher order thinking skills such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (Kitano, 1982). Teachers and parents tend to set high expectations for gifted learners and usually think that curriculum for gifted children needs to be advanced. Yet, play is an important instructional strategy for the young gifted child and can be incorporated into all kinds of educational objectives (Kaplan, 1980). Several authors agree that curriculum for gifted preschoolers should be designed to encourage exploration through dramatic play, expressive art, and block play (Kitano; Koopmans-Dayton & Feldhusen, 1987; Parke & Ness, 1988; Snowden, 1995; Vydra & Leimbach, 1998). Motor development is encouraged by block play. Blocks may be manipulated as a solitary activity, but children also construct and build with blocks parallel to each other and in groups. Prosocial behaviors are enhanced when children play together (M. B. Karnes, 1983; Kitano). Play may also be used as a vehicle for teaching advanced content, learning higher level thinking processes, and as a means for developing creative and varied products (Kaplan).

A differentiated curriculum for young gifted students must also include creative thinking activities (M. B. Karnes, 1983; Kitano, 1982). Gifted preschoolers should be encouraged to verbally brainstorm, write without editing, and use drawings to process ideas and plan projects. Creative thinking may be used as a means to solve problems in the preschool curriculum. Open-ended visual art, writing, or musical projects should be included and used to encourage fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration. It is important to note that curriculum driven by the children's interests should result in highly individualized instruction. Individualized instruction is most successful when a common set of procedures for setting goals, monitoring progress, establishing deadlines, and maintaining order in the work space is used. While each child explores their interests and makes choices about their learning, caregivers need to encourage task persistence and help the children stay organized (M. B. Karnes).

Product Development

Products play an important role in learning for young children. Not only do products give children a sense of ownership in the learning process, they provide a physical tool for the child to self-evaluate his or her progress. Gifted students in the preschool classroom work on both individual and group projects resulting in a wide variety of products. Maker (1986) suggests that products need to reflect real-life applications. For example, students may create story books or a bound collection of their writings. They may dictate the story or prose to an adult and make the corresponding illustrations (Clark, 2002). Students should choose from their works those they would like to edit, rewrite, illustrate, bind, and "publish" (Vydra & Leimbach, 1998). As children begin writing books, it is important to remember that not every work must be edited and scrutinized for errors (E A. Karnes & Stephens, 2000).

There are several ways in which students may synthesize their learning. Children s work may be scanned and placed into a PowerPoint presentation, allowing the student to choose slide design styles, create slide titles, and add text. These presentations can then be shared with other students and parents or published on the Web (e.g., University Primary School, 2003). Students may also work cooperatively on products such as a large sculpture or mural, making a representation of a habitat (environment) for an animal, or designing and setting up a new activity center.

Learning Environment

In order to facilitate the delivery of content, process, and product, there are a variety of approaches for gifted preschoolers. These structures may include ability grouping or individualized instruction (Snowden, 1995). The following concepts should guide the design of a program: student-centered learning; encouragement of student independence; an open, accepting environment; and high mobility (Koopmans-Dayton & Feldhusen, 1987; Maker 1986). Several authors agree that the learning environment should be natural, relaxed, and flexible (Hanninen, 1998; Hertzog, 2001; Koopmans-Dayton & Feldhusen; Plowman, 1987). Young gifted children respond well to multiple learning centers such as art, science, reading, writing, and building. Bright wall displays, multimedia technology, animals, and plants should also be featured in a combination of both private spaces and shared public spaces (Clark, 2002; Smutny, Walker, & Meckstroth, 1997). Young children learn from each other. Their skills will improve when they have the opportunity to exchange information with each other (Roedell et al., 1980). In both writing and art activities, a wide variety of materials such as different types of paintbrushes and paper should be provided to invite experimentation (M. B. Karnes, 1983). "Young gifted children want to experiment with colors, texture, and tones" (Vydra & Leimbach, 1998, p. 465).

Programming that provides an appropriate learning environment for young gifted children may make a difference in the emergence of exceptionality (Damiani, 1997). Therefore appropriate programming should also be nurturing to the young gifted child. A well-designed curriculum may even help develop positive attitudes toward learning that may prevent the gifted child from becoming an underachiever (Cline & Schwartz, 1999; M. B. Karnes, 1983; Story, 1991). Problems that are associated with underachievement in gifted students include loss of interest and motivation, boredom, rebellious behavior, and social/emotional concerns. Early consideration of the needs of the gifted preschooler can help to prevent these problems and provide a firm foundation for helping these children understand their giftedness. For these reasons, attention must be given to the preschool curriculum for gifted children, as well as provisions for the evaluation of preschool, gifted programs.

Ongoing Evaluation

One of the aspects of a quality preschool gifted program is systematic evaluation. The first step in ensuring quality is to develop a mission statement. This statement must clearly present the goals of the program so that outcomes may be measured appropriately (Hanninen, 1998). In evaluating program goals and individual student objectives, the screening measure used for entrance into the program is an important artifact. It is vital that the identification measure match the offerings of the program (Kaplan, 1980; M. B. Karnes, 1983; Koopmans-Dayton & Feldhusen, 1987; Robinson, 1993; Roedell et al., 1980). In addition to the assessment, programs for young gifted children should be evaluated using reviews of educational products and materials, inventories, observation, needs assessment, and questionnaires (Kaplan). Hertzog and Fowler (1999) developed an evaluation plan for one university-based preschool program for the gifted through analysis of stakeholders' and decision makers' issues and concerns, and other sources of data, including cost effectiveness of the program, program design, and the educational outcomes for the students. They found that external evaluators were necessary in order to assess all aspects of the program. Comparison groups must be used to evaluate a program in order to assess whether or not a program is really providing a special service (Robinson; Vydra & Leimbach, 1998). Other programs that either exclusively served gifted students or those that serve gifted students among normally developing peers may be used to compare assessment of educational outcomes.

Another aspect of program evaluation is staff development. The supervisor that monitors a preschool program serving gifted children should be trained in gifted education (Koopmans-Dayton & Feldhusen, 1987). The supervisor should arrange lot the ongoing professional training of personnel (Koopmans-Dayton & Feldhusen; Mathews & Bums, 1992). Staff should model higher order thinking by using open-ended questions, advanced vocabulary, and deductive and creative thinking (Hanninen, 1998). Staff members also need to work cooperatively with kindergarten and first-grade teachers, as well as principals in the child's next educational setting in order to help students transition smoothly (Koopmans-Dayton & Feldhusen). The most important considerations in this process are open dialog and sharing information among parents, child, and educators, both present and future. Essential information would include the child's work samples and results of any formal and informal assessments that were administered to the child (Nelson, 2004).

Complete and comprehensive record keeping is necessary to measure both student and program outcomes (Hanninen, 1998; Koopmans-Dayton & Feldhusen, 1987). Evaluations of student work should be collected periodically throughout the year. These documents will record events that demonstrate higher order thinking, and they should "reflect individual differences and abilities appropriate to mental age" (Hanninen, p. 453). Such events that may be noticed and recorded are the use of advanced vocabulary, the use of metaphors and analogies, mastery of new concepts or skills, or other demonstrations of complex mental connections (Roedell et al., 1980). Most importantly, when staff and parents work together to establish and plan the program and individual goals, progress is more easily evaluated (Hanninen; M. B. Kames, 1983). Being involved in the process is the best way for parents to know if a program is meeting their child's needs.

Parental Involvement

There is nothing more important than parental involvement in the development of young children's gifts. From the time that a child is born until he or she enters a school setting, the family has the primary responsibility for building skills and nurturing talent. It is helpful for parents to be knowledgeable of the many characteristics of gifted children. A parent who is aware of the emotional and social needs of the young gifted child will help their child develop physical and social skills just as carefully as they encourage mental growth (Hall & Skinner, 1980). Parents must be careful to view their child's giftedness as separate from the child. Young gifted children need to understand that they are loved for their own sake and not merely for intellectual achievements (Hall & Skinner; Sankar-DeLeeuw, 2002). Plowman (1987) encourages parents to "become an environmental specialist with your child's living space" (p. 25). This involves the use of the child's questions and expressions of interest as guides into further learning and explorations (Hall & Skinner). Children's intellectual and creative pursuits can be encouraged with the use of learning centers at home. By paying attention to the child's physical space, parents may entice him or her to discover, learn, and think.

As the child enters a preschool or kindergarten program, the family continues to play a major role in encouraging giftedness. It is especially important for parents to work closely with professionals to establish good relationships and to cooperatively determine goals for the child (M. B. Karnes, 1983). There is evidence to suggest that children get more out of a preschool program, whether it is exclusively for gifted students or not, when parents and professionals work together to try to meet the needs of the child (Sankar-DeLeeuw, 2002; Vydra & Leimbach, 1998).

Conclusion

Serving the young gifted child begins with the recognition of their abilities and a sensitivity to their needs. While there are many different curriculum strategies, attention to the child's physical world is a primary concern. All of the strategies suggested are guided by characteristics of giftedness and developmentally appropriate practice. In order to ensure that the abilities of young gifted children are nurtured and enhanced, a partnership between family members, education professionals, and other caregivers is essential.

REFERENCES

Abroms, K. I. (1982). Classroom interactions of gifted preschoolers. Teaching Exceptional Children, 14, 223-225.

Abroms, K. I., & Gollin, J. B. (1980). Developmental study of gifted preschool children and measures of psychosocial giftedness. Exceptional Children, 46, 334-341.

Barbour, N. E. (1992). Early childhood gifted education: A collaborative perspective. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 15, 145-162.

Barbour, N. E., & Shaklee, B. D. (1998). Gifted education meets Reggio Emilia: Visions for curriculum in gifted education for young children. Gifted Child Quarterly, 42, 228-238.

Barclay, K., & Benelli, C. (1994). Are labels determining practice? Childhood Education, 70(3), 133-136.

Barnett, L. A., & Fiscella, J. (1985). A child by any other name.... A comparison of the playfulness of gifted and nongifted children. Gifted Child Quarterly, 29, 61-66.

Baum, S. (1987). The enabling curriculum: Appropriate activities for primary-aged gifted students. In Preschool/primary education for the gifted. Canoga Park, CA: California Association for the Gifted. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED301985)

Baum, S. (1998). Developing talent in young learners with picture books. In J. F. Smutny (Ed.), The young gifted child: Potential and promise, an anthology (pp. 445-461). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.

Bredekamp, S., & Copple, C. (Eds.). (1997). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs. Washington, DC: National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Caropreso, E. J. (1994). Analogical reasoning and giftedness: A comparison between identified gifted and nonidentified children. Journal of Educational Research 87, 271-279.

Clark, B. (2002). Growing up gilled (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

Cline, S. (1998). The Cline cube: Integrating models of gifted education. In J. F. Smutny (Ed.), The young gifted child: Potential and promise, an anthology (pp. 420-431). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.

Cline, S., & Schwartz, D. (1999). Diverse populations of gifted children. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

Colangelo, N., Assouline, S. G., & Gross, M. U. M. (2004). A nation deceived: How schools hold back America's brightest students. Iowa City, IO: The Connie Belin & Jacqueline N. Blank International Center for Gifted Education and Talent Development.

Damiani, V. B. (1997, May-June). Young gifted children in research and practice. Gifted Child Today Magazine, 20(3), 18-23.

Eby, J. W., & Smutny, J. F. (1991). A thoughtful overview of gifted education. New York: Longman.

Edwards, S. (2005). Children's learning and developmental potential: Examining the theoretical informants of early childhood curricula from the educator's perspective. Early Years, 25, 67-80.

Feldhusen, J. F. (1992). Early admission and grade advancement for young gifted learners. Gifted Child Today, 15(2), 45-49.

Feldhusen, J. F., & Kolloff, M. B. (1979). Giftedness: A mixed blessing for the preschool child. In S. M. Long & B. Batchelor (Eds.), When there is crisis: Helping children cope with change. Terre Haute, IN: Indiana Association for the Education of Young Children.

Gould, J. C., Thorpe, P., & Weeks, V. (2001). An early childhood accelerated program. Educational Leadership, 59(3), 47-50.

Hafenstein, N. L., & Tucker, B. (1995). Psychological intensities in young gifted children. Paper presented at the Esther Katz Rosen Symposium on the Psychological Development of Gifted Children. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED387975)

Hall, E. G., & Skinner, N. (1980). Somewhere to turn: Strategies for parents of gilled and talented children. New York: Teachers College Press.

Hanninen, G. E. (1998). Designing a preschool program for the gifted and talented. In J. F. Smutny (Ed.), The young gifted child: Potential and promise, an anthology (pp. 445-461). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.

Hertzog, N. B. (2001). Reflections and impressions from Reggio Emilia: "It's not about art!" Early Childhood Research and Practice, 3(1), 1-10. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED453002)

Hertzog, N. B.. & Fowler. S. A. (1999). Perspectives: Evaluating an early childhood gifted education program. Roeper Review; 21, 222-228.

Hodge, K. A., & Kemp, C. R. (2000). Exploring the nature of giftedness in preschool children. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 24, 46-73.

Jackson, N. (1992). Precocious reading of English: Origins, structure, and predictive significance. In P. S. Klein & A. J. Tannenbaum (Eds.), To be young and gifted (pp. 171-203). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Kaplan, S. N. (1980). The role of play in a differentiated curriculum for the young gifted child. Roeper Review, 3, 5-17.

Karnes, F. A., Manning, S., Besnoy, K., Cukierkorn. J., & Houston, H. (2005). Appropriate practices for screening, identifying, and serving gifted preschoolers. Hattiesburg: The University of Southern Mississippi, The Frances A. Karnes Center for Gifted Studies.

Karnes, F. A., & Stephens, K. R. (2000). The ultimate guide for student product development & evaluation. Waco, TX: Prufrock Press.

Karnes, M. B. (1983). The underserved: Our young gifted children. Reston, VA: ERIC Clearinghouse on Handicapped and Gifted Children. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED235645)

Karnes, M. B., Shwedel, A. M., & Kemp, P. B. (1985). Preschool: Programming for the young gifted child. Roeper Review, 7, 204-209.

Kitano, M. K. (1982). Young gifted children: Strategies for preschool teachers. Young Children, 37(4), 14-24.

Koopmans-Dayton, J. D., & Feldhusen, J. F. (1987). A resource guide for parents of gifted preschoolers. Gifted Child Today, 10(6), 2-7.

Kostelnik, M. J., Soderman, A. K., & Whiren, A. P. (2004). Developmentally appropriate curriculum: Best practices in early childhood education. Upper Saddle River. NJ: Pearson.

Lempers, J., Block, L., Scott, M., & Draper, D. (1987). The relationship between psychometric brightness and cognitive-developmental precocity in gifted preschoolers. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 33, 489-503.

Maker, C. J. (1986). Suggested principles for gifted preschool curricula. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 6(1), 62-73.

Maker, C. J., & Nielson, A. B. (1996). Curriculum development and teaching strategies for gifted learners. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

Mathews, F. N., & Bums, J. M. (1992). A parent evaluation of a public preschool gifted program. Roeper Review, 15, 69-72.

Morelock, M. J., & Morrison, K. (1999). Differentiating developmentally appropriate: The multidimensional curriculum model for young gifted children. Roeper Review. 21. 195-201.

Nelson, R. F. (2004). The transition to kindergarten. Early Childhood Education Journal, 32, 187-190.

Nuttall, J. (2003). Influences on the co-construction of the teacher role in early childhood curriculum: Some examples from a New Zealand childcare centre. International Journal of Early Years Education, 11(2), 23-31.

Parke, B. N., & Ness, P. S. (1988). Curricular decision-making for the education of young gifted children. Gifted Child Quarterly 32, 196-199.

Perez, G. S. (1980). Perceptions of the young gifted child. In R. Brodsky (Ed.), The young gifted child. Roeper Review, 3, 5-17.

Plowman, P. (1987). Preschool gifted children. Gifted Child Today; 10(6), 24-26.

Rankin, B. (2004). The importance of intentional socialization among children in small groups: A conversation with Loris Malaguzzi. Early Childhood Education Journal, 32, 81-85.

Robinson, N. M. (1993). Identifying and nurturing gifted, very young children. In K. A. Heller et al. (Ed.), International handbook of research and development of giftedness and talent (pp. 507-524). Ehnsford, NY: Pergamon Press.

Roedell, W. C., Jackson, N. E., & Robinson, H. B. (1980). Gifted young children. New York: Teachers College Press.

Roeper, A. (1977). The young gifted child. Gifted Child Quarterly, 21, 388-396.

Ros, B. (2002). Thinking skills in the early years. Gifted Education International, 16, 248-260.

Rotigel, J. V. (2003). Understanding the young gifted child: Guidelines for parents, families, and educators. Early Childhood Education Journal, 30. 209-214.

Samuels, C. A. (2005). N.C. program holds promise for gifted classes. Education Week, 24(40), 5-10.

Sankar-DeLeeuw, N. (2002). Gifted preschoolers: Parent and teacher views on identification, early admission, and programming. Roeper Review, 24. 172.

Shepard, L. A. (1994). The challenges of assessing young children appropriately. Phi Delta Kuppan, 76, 206-212.

Smutny, J. F., Walker, S. Y., & Meckstroth, E. A. (1997). Teaching young gifted children in the regular classroom: Identifying, nurturing, and challenging, ages 4-9. Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit Publishing.

Snowden, P. L. (1995). Educating young gifted children. Gifted Child Today, 18(6), 16-21, 24-25, 41.

Story, C. (1991). Young gifted children. NRC/GT Newsletter. Retrieved December 17, 2004, from The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented http://www.gifted.uconn.edu/nrcgt/newsletter/november91/nov9108.html

Tannenbaum, A. J. (1992). Early signs of giftedness: Research and commentary. Journal jar the Education of the Gifted, 15, 104-133.

University Primary School. (2003). What's to eat? A close look at the food around our school. Retrieved March 4, 2007, from http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/ups/curriculum2003/ food/pptgallery.html

Vydra, J., & Leimbach, J. (1998). Planning curriculum for young gifted children. In J. F. Smutny (Ed.), The young gifted child: Potential and promise, an anthology (pp. 462-475). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.

Walker, B., Hafenstein, N. L., & Crow-Enslow, L. (1999). Meeting the needs of gifted learners in the early childhood classroom. Young Children, 54(1), 32-36.

Wortham, S. C. (2005). Assessment in early childhood education (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N J: Pearson, Merrill, Prentice Hall.

Wright, L., & Coulianos, C. (1991). A model program for precocious children: Hollingworth Preschool. Gifted Child Today, 14(5), 24-25.

Jesse R. Cukierkorn received a doctorate in Curriculum, Instruction, and Special Education with an emphasis in Gifted Education at The University of Southern Mississippi. Her research interests include talent development in visual and performing arts and intercultural art education. She teaches in Miami-Dade County, FL. E-mail: [e-mail]

Frances A. Karnes is a professor in the Department of Curriculum, Instruction, and Special Education and Director of the Frances A. Karnes Center for Gifted Studies at The University of Southern Mississippi. She is author or co-author of more than 250 papers published in scholarly journals, numerous monographs and book chapters, and is co-author of thirty-eight books in gifted education and related areas. E-mail: [e-mail]

Sandra J. Manning received a doctorate in Curriculum, Instruction, and Special Education with an emphasis in Gifted Education at The University of Southern Mississippi. She is the Associate Director of The Frances A. Karnes Center for Gifted Studies. E-mail: [e-mail]

Heather Houston is in the dissertation phase of her doctorate in Curriculum, Instruction, and Special Education with an emphasis in Gifted Education and a minor in research and statistics from The University of Southern Mississippi. E-mail: [e-mail]

Kevin D. Besnoy is an assistant professor of elementary social studies education at Northern Kentucky University. His research interests include integrating technology into the curriculum and programs for at-risk youth. E-mail: [e-mail]

Please direct all correspondence to Jesse R. Cukierkorn, The Frances A. Karnes Center for Gifted Studies, The University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Drive #8207, Hattiesburg, MS 39406-0001. Phone: [phone]; Fax: [phone]; E-mail: [e-mail]

Table 1
Characteristics of
Preschool Gifted Children

Characteristic              Comment

Verbal skills including     Early speech enables young gifted
advanced vocabulary         children to express their ideas, seek
for age and use of          information through questioning, and
language in original        interact verbally with their parents
and meaningful ways.        and family members at an age when
                            other children are only beginning to
                            experiment with oral communication.

Asynchronous                The balance among socioemotional,
development                 intellectual, and motor development
                            is usually uneven.

Emotional sensitivity       A young gifted child may demonstrate a
                            strong concern for others and their
                            feelings. This allows for early
                            development of values, empathy, and
                            responsibility.

Early awareness             The potential for developing the
of difference               characteristics of perfectionism may
                            stem from the child's ability to judge
                            him or herself by the performance of
                            peers in addition to his or her own
                            expectations.

Cooperative play            The gifted preschooler will often
style                       initiate play sessions, coordinate,
                            and integrate multiple complementary
                            roles, taking into consideration the
                            actions of other children.

Use of unconventional       This suggests an increased need for
objects in their play       environmental stimulation.
activities

Leadership                  They are frequently sought out by
                            peers for companionship, ideas,
                            decisions, and interact easily with
                            peers.

Mature sense                Gifted preschoolers may respond to
of humor                    riddles and verbal associations rather
                            than the visual humor that is usually
                            found in age-level children's books.

Sensitivity to              Because of an incomplete or false
problems                    understanding of a situation, they
                            may fall victim to doubts, fears,
                            and guilt feelings.

Curiosity                   They may integrate large amounts of
                            information into their knowledge base,
                            and interests are marked by a clear
                            goal orientation.

Cognitive skills            They show evidence of reasoning,
                            prelogical thinking, creativity, and
                            spontaneous incorporation of academic
                            activities into free play.

Metacognitive control       They are economical and efficient in
                            developing strategies to solve problems.

Academic                    They are able to remember complex
achievement skills          information and to decode other
                            symbolic systems such as maps and
                            written language.

Precocious reading          Rapid text-reading speed (both oral
                            and silent) may be preferred because
                            it facilitates comprehension.

Note. Generated from Barnett & Fiscella (1985), Caropreso (1994),
Eby & Smutny (1991), Feldhusen & Kolloff (1979), Hafenstein &
Tucker (1995), Jackson (1992), Kitano (1982), Perez (1980), and
Robinson (1993).

Table 2
Matrix of Curriculum Strategies and
Selected Internet Resources

Strategies                  Internet resources

Content
  Junior Great Books        http://www.greatbooks.org/typ/
  Whole Language            http://reading.indiana.edu/ieo/
    Instruction               bibs/whole.html
  Math Their Way            http://www.center.edu/
  Strategy Games            http://www.educationallearninggames.com/

Process
  Creative Problem          http://www.fpsp.org/
    Solving
  Bloom's Taxonomy:         http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/
    Cognitive Domain          col/cogsys/bloom.html
  Krathwohl's Taxonomy:     http://classweb.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/
    Affective Domain          Resources/Resources2/krathstax.htm
  Talents Unlimited         http://www.sharingsuccess.org/code/
                              eptw/pdf_profiles/talentsunlimited.pdf
  Hilda Taba Teaching       http://imet.csus.edu/classic/
    Strategies                fundamentals/inductive/taba_
                              handbook.htm

Product
  Bar graphs, picture       http://illuminations.nctm.org/
    graphs, pie charts
  Collaborative creations   http://www.lessonfactory.com/
    (quilts, murals,
    group sculptures)
  Collections               http://kids.si.edu/collecting/
  Dramatic presentations    http://www.childdrama.com/lessons.html
    (puppet shows, skits,
    role playing)
  Student-made books        http://www.canby.com/hockmanchupp/
                              student-folder websites.html
  PowerPoint                http://www.paducah.kl2.ky.us/curriculum/
    presentations             PPoint/

Learning environment
and delivery
  Renzulli's Schoolwide     http://www.gifted.uconn.edu/sempage.html
    Enrichment
  Self-Directed Learner     http://www.longleaf.net/ggrow/SSDL/
    Model                     SSDLIndex.html
  Structure of Intellect    http://www.soisystems.com/
    (SOI)
  Ability grouping          http://www.nagc.org/index.aspx?id=382
  Early admission           http://www.hoagiesgifted.org/
                              acceleration.htm
  Individualized            http://www.ctserc.org/library/
    instruction               bibfiles/differentiated8-7-03.pdf
  Multi-age grouping        http://www.kl2.hi.us/-bwoerner/ipcs/
                              non-graded.html

Note. Generated from Baum (1998), Hanninen (1998), and Snowden (1995).