Service-learning for understanding human exceptionality.

Abstract

This investigation examined the service-learning component of an undergraduate human exceptionality course. One section of the course utilized an unlimited choice (UC) approach in which students were instructed to design and implement a service-learning project on their own following general guidelines provided by the instructors. The second course section utilized a limited choice (LC) approach in which students chose between three service options prearranged by the instructors. The findings suggest that the service experience contributed to students' understanding of the course content and their roles as citizens, and had some influence on the affective, behavioral, and cognitive dimensions of learning. Overall, students in the UC section perceived a greater benefit from the service experience than students from the LC section.

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Background

Service-learning has been defined as a pedagogical technique for combining authentic community service with integrated academic outcomes (Erickson & Anderson, 1997). Well-structured service-learning experiences have the potential to help students develop a greater understanding of the social conditions faced by others. Boss (1994) found that not only does community service improve sensitivity to moral issues, but it also helps students overcome negative stereotypes that act as barriers to interacting with others. This is especially critical today as attempts are made to create a more inclusive society. Hardman, Drew, and Egan (1999) maintained that the inclusion of people with disabilities into community settings, such as schools, places of employment, and neighborhoods, is based on a philosophy that recognizes and accepts the range of human differences.

Eyler, Giles, and Braxton (1999) challenged researchers to identify more clearly the types of service-learning experience that make the greatest difference to students. The purpose of this article is to present the findings of an investigation that compared the service-learning experiences of students who participated in two concurrent sections of an undergraduate course on human exceptionality. Research questions addressed in this investigation were (a) was there a difference in participants' perceptions of the benefits of the service-learning experience between the two approaches? and (b) were any pedagogical advantages or disadvantages identified for either approach in the domains of course content and citizenship, or in the affective, behavioral, and cognitive dimensions of learning?

Method

Multiple sources of qualitative and quantitative data were collected and analyzed. Data sources included: (a) Service-Learning Course Evaluation; (b) reflective journals; (c) focus group transcripts; and (d) telephone interview transcripts. A copy of the Service-Learning Course Evaluation instrument is provided in the appendix. See issue's website <http://rapidintellect.com/AEQweb/sum2003.htm>

Students in each section were required to perform a minimum of 20 hours of service during the semester. Students in the unlimited choice (UC) section (N = 14) were assigned to identify and contact an agency or individual with whom to explore possible service-learning activities. Service activities were to be performed in a minimum of three different environments, including school, home, work, or community settings. Students in the limited choice (LC) section (N = 16) were provided with three prearranged service-learning options: Valley School, a self-contained public school facility for students with severe disabilities; Neighborhood Preschool, a nonprofit preschool that provides day care services for children from mainly low-income and minority group families; and Camp ABC, a nonprofit center that provides year-round recreational opportunities for individuals with disabilities of all ages. Representatives from each agency made a brief presentation on the first night of class to describe the purpose of the agency, the populations served by the agency, and the nature of the service that students would be asked to perform. Six students chose Valley School, five chose Neighborhood Preschool, two chose Camp ABC, and three were allowed to fulfill the service-learning requirement at alternative sites due to scheduling conflicts.

Results

Corbett and Kendall (1999) conducted Pearson product moment correlations to identify items from the Service-Learning Course Evaluation survey that significantly correlate with two domains of learning: course content and citizenship (see Table 1). See issue's website <http://rapidintellect.com/AEQweb/sum2003.htm>

Eighty-seven percent of the students in the UC section responded very positively ("strongly agree" or "agree") to the three survey items measuring the domain of content. The following focus group quote is representative of most UC students' perception:

   Yes! I could see a lot of the things we talked about in class. It
   wasn't just that I could see what autism looks like, but I could
   really understand what life was like for her. When we would discuss
   class material, I could almost always find something that related
   to her life.

Students in the LC section responded less positively to the three content domain items, responding most positively (69%) to item #4, (helped me understand basic concepts). Conversely, on item #9 (interest in studying harder), 63% of the students responded either neutrally or negatively. LC students who chose the Neighborhood Preschool option had the most difficulty relating their service experience to the course content, as illustrated by the following quote:

   It was hard to relate the things from the place to the class
   material. The children were not really handicapped in any way, so
   the class didn't mean that much when I was working with them.

Students who chose the Valley School option were more positive about how the service experience related to concepts covered in class.

   I had an opportunity to apply textbook principles. I had a really
   good opportunity to look at all the different disabilities .... I
   think the textbook helped me to understand the kids better, and the
   kids, in turn, helped me to understand what I learned in the text a
   little bit more.

One Camp ABC participant was fairly positive about relating the experience to the course content, but the other Camp ABC participant made a unilateral decision to change her service placement halfway through the semester, stating:

   I went to Camp ABC again. I'm not sure how much I'm enjoying it. I
   never get to work with the same kids. I'm finding I'm not learning
   very well.

Responses by UC students were even more positive in the domain of citizenship. Citizenship is defined as the level of an individual's adjustment, responsibility, or contributions to his or her community (Bonar, Buchanan, Fisher, & Wechsler, 1996). A recurring theme in the course was the practice of labeling individuals with exceptionalities and the effect these labels have on others' perceptions of the individuals. Each participant in the UC section, to varying degrees, reflected on his or her own biases, and how those biases had changed over the time of their service experience. The following excerpt is an example of this type of reflection:

   Since our class discussion, I have pondered about "assumptions."
   Assumptions can often cause us to pass fallacious judgment and make
   invalid conclusions... This class, coupled with my work with Kathy,
   has helped me to realize that we need to be careful in making
   assumptions and inferences.

As students acknowledged and challenged their own biases and assumptions, they also began to examine the effect of biases and assumptions held by society in general, and the limitations that are imposed on individuals with exceptionalities, particularly those with disabilities. Reflecting on a visit to a nationally recognized fast-food franchise, one UC participant wrote:

   Overall, I think it is the community that discourages Bob's
   opportunities. An example of this is when we finished eating. I
   threw our trash away and then realized that there is no way to fit
   through the tables with a wheelchair. They are so close together
   and there is no main aisle through... [The franchise] had certainly
   violated the ADA law.

Students in the UC section typically demonstrated their interest in solving community problems by focusing on the problems of the service recipient. In most cases, the first step was to define the problem then identify and implement a reasonable intervention. For example, reflecting about her adult brother with mental retardation, one student wrote:

   I never really thought about it, but all his life he's had other
   people answering for him. It's not because he can't, but he is
   usually hesitant and others don't want to wait for him, so they
   just answer. I believe that in order for him to gain more
   independence, we need to give him more time to answer for himself
   and he will.

The responses by students in the LC section were also more positive in the citizenship domain. The following focus group quote from a Camp ABC participant illustrates this perception:

   I learned the importance of volunteering or donating my time to
   something that I believe in, because it's one thing to talk about
   me believing in something or do something and it's another thing to
   do it.

LC students responded most favorably (75%) to survey item #8 (helped me become more aware of community problems). In the focus group, one Camp ABC participant stated,

   This whole class, mostly the service-learning, made me a lot more
   aware of people around me, and I think I notice more than I did
   before; definitely with individuals with disabilities.

Welch (1999) suggested that service-learning should provide opportunities for students to explore the affective, behavioral, and cognitive aspects of the experience. The affective dimension of learning refers to students' awareness of, and response to, the feelings, emotions, and attitudes they encountered during the service-learning experience. Students who engaged in service activities with individuals familiar to them had less initial anxiety than those who worked with individuals unfamiliar to them. After her first day of service with students with severe and multiple disabilities, a UC participant reflected,

   It was interesting that at the end of the day I had a feeling that
   I did not expect to leave with, I was very sad. It was hard to be
   in a class with kids that more than likely in ten years will
   probably be in a hospital setting.... I left that day with a very
   hopeless feeling.

An underlying principle of service-learning is the concept of reciprocity, in which both parties (service provider and service recipient) receive benefit from the experience. The following reflection illustrates this concept:

   I feel that Amy has much to teach me about hearing loss. She has a
   very high self-esteem. She does not care what other people think of
   her. Visiting with her has helped me realize that having a
   disability is okay, and it can be overcome if you are willing to
   put forth the effort.

The behavioral dimension of learning refers to student's reflections on his or her own actions during the service (Welch, 1999). In this study, the behavioral dimension is conceptualized to include the students' observations and reflections concerning the actions of the recipient and others encountered during the experience. For example, a male participant at Neighborhood Preschool made the following remarks:

   I was asked to read books with the girls. I agreed, and we settled
   into the beanbag chairs. Everything was cool except that they all
   tried to sit on my lap. It didn't bother me so much personal space
   wise, but I was uncomfortable with what other adults would think
   was appropriate. I had put myself in a bad position.... I'll do
   whatever I can to just avoid that kind of situation and any
   questions of inappropriateness that might come up.

A Valley School participant reflected on how he had always interacted with his younger sister, who has Down's syndrome, and how the service-learning experience had prompted him to change that pattern of behavior. He wrote,

   This weekend, I was at my parents' house where my sister, who is
   mentally retarded, lives and I was surprised to discover how the
   way I treated my sister had changed as a direct result of the time
   I've spent in [Valley School]. I've observed that the teachers and
   aides talk to the students with disabilities the same way they talk
   to me. I've never really talked to my sister the same way I talk to
   everyone else.... This weekend 1 found myself talking directly to
   her as if she were any other person without a disability, and it
   felt so natural.

The cognitive dimension of service-learning refers to the student's ability to relate the service experience to the information, concepts, skills or terms examined in the course (Welch, 1999). In essence, this dimension is nearly identical to the course content domain discussed above. Participants in both sections provided evidence of making connections between the course content and the service experience.

Discussion

The findings of this study suggest that the service-learning experience contributed to students' understanding of the course content and to their roles as citizens, and had some influence on the affective, behavioral, and cognitive dimensions of learning. Overall, students in the UC section perceived a greater benefit from the service experience than students from the LC section. Several advantages to the UC approach were identified. First, since participants had much more control over the type of service they performed, many of them designed projects that addressed personal interests. This factor may have had a positive effect on some UC students' motivation to provide good service to the recipient and to make connections between the service experience and the course content. As Eyler and Giles (1999) states, "Caring leads to the need to know" (p. 84). Second, because UC participants were required to perform service in three different environments, they had opportunities to develop a more global understanding of the exceptionality. This is consistent with the recommendation made by Eyler and Giles (1999), that when students are learning about complex social problems, they need to be provided with opportunities to explore those issues and to use the information that is presented in class in multiple settings. However, by focusing on just one individual, UC students may have been at a disadvantage concerning course content by being exposed to only one or just a few areas of exceptionality.

LC students indicated a moderate perception of benefit related to course content, and several possible advantages of the LC approach were identified. First, the instructors were able to select sites that matched or exemplified the content covered in the course, including sites that addressed disability, multicultural, and at-risk issues. However, students who chose the Neighborhood Preschool option experienced more difficulty in relating the service to the content of the course. Second, by selecting the service sites, the instructors were able to maintain somewhat greater quality control over the service experiences. Third, by focusing on one specific agency, most students gained an in-depth understanding of the services provided and individuals served by that agency. Fourth, uniformity of the service projects enabled students to share common experiences and to develop shared understandings.

Several disadvantages to the LC approach also were identified. First, it was very difficult to identify service sites that addressed all aspects of the course content. This became obvious with the students who chose the Neighborhood Preschool option. Although multicultural and at-risk issues were covered in the course, the primary focus of the course was on disabilities. Since most of the children served by Neighborhood Preschool do not have disabilities, and the LC students who chose that option expressed much frustration in making connections to the course content. This is consistent with the findings of Eyler and Giles (1999) insofar as application, the degree to which students can link classroom learning to their service experiences, was associated with almost all academic learning outcomes that were investigated.

Second, by limiting the service experience to just one setting, students were not provided with opportunities to gain a more global understanding of exceptionality. Third, although the LC approach provided the instructors with greater control over the quality of the service experience, it still did not guarantee that all students would have a quality experience. As with any type of class assignment, there was a certain amount of variability in the quality of the work completed regardless of the instructors' efforts and guidelines. Finally, only about 38% of the LC students indicated on the Service-Learning course evaluation that the service activities made them interested in studying harder compared with 77% of the UC students. This difference in motivation may be related to the amount of control students were allowed over their service experiences, or to factors such as placement quality, previous experience with service-learning, intrapersonal differences, or other unknown factors.

However, students in the LC section were less positive about the benefit of the service experience related to citizenship outcomes. It is difficult to determine from the data if this lowered perception of benefit is related to the limited choice of service placements, or to other factors. It is possible that, by being limited to three predetermined service placement options, students may have felt little control or ownership over the experience. Some students may have viewed the service-learning component as just another class assignment, as indicated by comments from a few students that they wished the service-learning component had been optional for extra credit rather than being required. The findings of this investigation are consistent with Root, Callahan, & Sepanski (2002) in that the quality of the service-learning experience, placement, and students' subjective experience were all factors that moderated the impact of the service-learning projects.

The limitations of this investigation are: (a) the Service-learning Course Evaluation is a self-report questionnaire that has not undergone rigorous scrutiny to determine its reliability or validity; (b) the sample sizes were small; (c) the service options available to students in the LC section were limited and variations in quality of the placement might explain differences between sections; and (d) the perspectives of the service partners were not incorporated. Moreover, further investigation is needed to determine the effects and benefits of service-learning in other special education and teacher preparation courses, and to ascertain if greater student control over the service-learning experience results in increased commitment, motivation, and feelings of ownership over the service-learning experience.

References

Bonar, L., Buchanan, R., Fisher, I., & Wechsler, A. (1996). Service-learning in the curriculum: A faculty guide to course development. Salt Lake City, UT: Lowell Bennion Community Service Center at the University of Utah.

Boss, J.A. (1994). The effect of community service work on the moral development of college ethics students. Journal of Moral Education, 23, 183-198.

Corbett, J. B., & Kendall, A. R. (1999). Evaluating service learning in the communication discipline. Journalism and Mass Communication Educator, 53, (4), 66-76.

Erickson, J. A., & Anderson, J.B. (Vol. Eds.). (1997). Learning with the community: Concepts and models for service-learning in teacher education. In E. Zlotkowski (Series Ed.) American Association for Higher Education (AAHE) Series on Service-Learning in the Disciplines. Washington, D.C.: AAHE.

Eyler, J., & Giles, D. E. Jr. (1999). Where's the learning in service-learning? San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Eyler, J., Giles, D.E. Jr., & Braxton, J. (1999). The impact of service-learning on college students. In Sullivan, M.C., Myers, R.A., Bradfield, C.D., & Street, D.L. (Eds.). Service-learning: Educating students for life. Harrisonburg, VA: Institute for Research in Higher Education, James Madison University.

Hardman, M. L., Drew, C. J., & Egan, M. W. (1999). Human exceptionality: Society, school, and family, (6th Ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Root, S., Callahan, J., & Sepanski, J. (2002). Service-learning in teacher education: A consideration of qualitative and quantitative outcomes. In A. Furco & S.H. Billig (Eds.). Service-Learning: The essence of pedagogy. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.

Welch, M. (1999). The ABCs of reflection: A template for students and instructors to implement written reflection in service-learning. NSSE Quarterly, 25, (2), 1, 23-25.

Jack Mayhew, Weber State University, UT

Dr. Mayhew is an assistant professor of teacher education. His teaching-research agenda Includes assessment and behavior management for students with disabilities, and service-learning.