Service-Learning: Vygotsky, Dewey, and Teaching Writing.

Recently, one of my students asked one of the greatest and also one of the most subversive questions imaginable for a classroom: "Why are we doing this?" This student's comment reminds me that writing classes need to be relevant. In other words, if students do not reflect upon why they are writing something, then they are less likely to view it as important and learn from it. The teaching of writing needs to connect with real social needs and situations, and one useful example is service-learning.

But what about service-learning? Why are we doing service-learning more and more at the university level? Is it working? Why are many faculty still skeptical of the idea? Are we helping students to become better students, writers, and citizens? Are we making our classrooms more "political" than they should be and attempting to inculcate our students with certain ideologies? Why service-learning?

There is a growing body of literature about service-learning. In the field of English composition, for example, Ellen Cushman's "The Rhetorician as the Agent for Social Change" challenges writing teachers to make connections with community. In response to Bruce Herzberg's critique of service-learning, Schutz and Gere stress the importance of students thinking in the public sphere after their private, one-on-one volunteer relationships as tutors.

To add to this conversation about why service-learning might be a good pedagogical tool, I will explore some intersections between Vygotsky, Dewey, and the writing classroom. The first part of this paper will wrestle with theory (to make a connection between the theories of Vygotsky and Dewey and the case for service-learning) and the second part with the application of theory in the classroom.

Vygotsky & Dewey: Learning is Social

In their philosophies of education, both Vygotsky and Dewey stress that learning is a social process. Vygotsky's "zone of proximal development" is the zone in which students can solve problems collaboratively and learn from one another (86). In other words, students may be able to complete some tasks independently; however, in order for them to increase their "level of potential development," students need to work with others (86). This collaborative zone stems from the idea that learning is social and happens when "[s]peech and practical activity converge" (24).(1) Knowledge does not originate from within us; we learn from our environment: when a student learns arithmetic or writing, he or she is internalizing "external knowledge" (91).

Dewey also believes that education is social. In "My Pedagogic Creed," Dewey writes of the importance of a student's learning environment: we learn from our environment; language, then, is social.(2) Our babblings are meaningful because of the responses from other people. Because it is a "social process," writes Dewey, "[e]ducation, therefore, is a process of living and not a preparation for future living" (230). We cannot separate education from life; the connection of the two is the point. To think is to reflect upon and act in the world. Thus, both Dewey and Vygotsky stress education as a product of experience and social situations. To learn, according to them, requires that students become active learners.(3)

Vygotsky and Dewey in the Composition Classroom

In order to apply Vygotsky's and Dewey's ideas, education "[m]ust be relevant to life'" and "meaningful for children" (Vygotsky 118).(4) One pedagogical tool for writing to become meaningful is service-learning or learning through reflective action in a community. For example, students volunteer or serve an agency in the community and reflect upon this experience through class readings and discussions. And here are the connections, I see, with Vygotsky and Dewey:

1. Students are active learners. They bring their service experience from the community into the classroom. They are conducting their own field research.

2. Students enter Vygotsky's zone of proximal development through service-learning, which increases the potential for learning. In other words, students work with and learn from people at their volunteer sites. As John Dewey wrote, "[R]egard for self and regard for others are both of them secondary phases of a more normal and complete interest: regard for the welfare and integrity of the social groups of which we form a part" ("The Moral Self" 349). We cannot separate the individual from the community like we cannot separate the learner from the environment; both are needed to exist and learn.

3. Students become reflective, active citizens. The importance of this goal is that students see a relevance to what they are doing; their writing responds to real social needs. There are numerous examples of writing connecting with community in service-learning courses at the university.(5) Writing for a community agency can help students consider issues of audience (Deans & Meyer-Goncalves 13). Deans & Meyer-Goncalves asked students to work in pairs as they wrote for local non-profits--a way of combining collaborative writing with service-learning. Leigh Henson gives other examples of writing for community agencies with a real purpose (198). At universities, such as Portland State, all freshman take courses in the "Freshman Inquiry" program, a problem-based curriculum in which students write about pressing social problems and propose solutions (Ehrlich 497). This fall, at the University of North Carolina-Greensboro, I am starting a writing class at a local family homeless shelter in which student volunteers and I will collaborate with shelter residents through writing.

A Course Idea and Practice: Citizenship and Service Practicum

To give a specific example of service-learning and how it connects with the ideas of Vygotsky and Dewey, I will describe and assess a course that I helped start and teach: "Citizenship and Service Practicum," a class in which students meet twice a week to discuss readings dealing with issues of service and community, interact with guest speakers, and keep a reflective journal as they complete forty hours of service work outside the classroom. The purpose of Citizenship and Service Practicum is for students to write and reflect upon what it means to be a citizen, make connections between what they learn in the classroom with what they observe in the community, and give something back to their community. This course's goal, then, is not to preach volunteerism; this course is one in which students reflect upon their roles in the community, consider different definitions of service, and conduct their own fieldwork. The course developed three main components: readings, guest speakers, and a reflective journal/portfolio.

The Readings

Using Gail Albert's Service-Learning Reader: Reflections and Perspectives on Service, we discussed a variety of readings, ranging from John Dewey to Martin Luther King, Jr. to Paulo Freire. These readings helped shape our topics for the semester: Individualism and Philanthropy, Values and Community, Politics of Service, Moral Development, Government and Non-profits, Women and Service, Role of the Church, Charity, Campus and Community Activists, Grassroots Activism, and Global Community. The course began with a chapter from John Dewey, "Experience and Thinking." Although this text presented some difficulty for students at first, it set a tone and framework for our course in its focus on reflection. Using Dewey's chapter, we examined different approaches to education and Dewey's criticism of education that lacked reflection: "To fill our heads, like a scrapbook, with this and that item as a finished and one-for thing, is not to think ... To consider the bearing of the occurrence upon what may be, but is not yet, is to think" (Albert 145). Then we made a connection between Dewey's call for reflection and our upcoming semester of fieldwork and reflective journal, thereby raising the expectation that every student needed to be an active learner and a co-investigator. Therefore, through writing and discussing, the goal for the rest of the readings, such as Shirley Jackson's mistrust of small communities in "The Lottery," Thich Nhat Hanh's philosophy of living in "Three Wondrous Answers," or John Lachs' analysis of apathy in "I Only Work Here," was for students to make connections with their volunteer work.

Guest Speakers

Guest speakers from the community were helpful in applying Vygotsky's and Dewey's ideas, because conversations with people who are actively engaged in the issues and ideas we were examining increased students' "zone of proximal development." For instance, to help our students with decisions about where to volunteer, our first group of speakers came from different service organizations: Habitat for Humanity, United Way, Communities in Schools (a tutoring program for the public schools), Metrolina AIDS project, Campus Recyling/Environmental Project, Campus Food Recycling (delivering leftover cafeteria food to the local soup kitchen), Refugee Program, and ABLE (Adult Literacy Program). During a class period early in the semester, each representative spoke for a few minutes about his or her agency and then, after the introductions, students were invited to interact with the speakers, take materials, or sign-up to volunteer. This event, dubbed our Volunteer Fair, was a fairly easy one to organize--most service organizations are eager to recruit volunteers. Many of our students chose to volunteer with the organizations we invited to our Volunteer Fair; others chose different projects or created their own.

Besides the Volunteer Fair, politicians visited and discussed leadership, service, and the relationships between government, community needs, and volunteerism. A local millionaire philanthropist talked about why he is giving away money to people in need. Religious leaders gave us background and examples of how different religious groups are addressing community problems. The local Soup Kitchen Director told our classes about the many people who are hungry in our community. Representatives from the United Way examined the differences between non-profits and endowments. Community Activists helped us think about the role of women in volunteerism and society. An editor and reporter from the local paper reflected upon the media's role in addressing and covering community needs and service work. We also invited faculty from different disciplines to share their expertise in the areas of service.

Guest speakers give real, immediate examples of service, leadership, and citizenship. As students engage in conversation with these speakers, they enter Vygotsky's "zone of proximal development" by discussing and acting upon problems they see in their communities. The best speakers posed interesting questions to our students and interacted with them: Why should you volunteer? What should be the role of government in addressing social issues? Are you an activist? Why or why not? How has more and more women entering the work force affected volunteerism? Students reflected upon these and other questions through their writing and follow-up discussions.

Volunteer Journal

To reflect upon this service work and the readings, students kept a journal, the aim of which was for students to make connections between what we talked about in the classroom and what they observed as they volunteered in the community. Student service projects included tutoring at a local elementary school and an adult literacy program, working for Habitat for Humanity, delivering leftover cafeteria food to the Uptown Soup Kitchen, recycling aluminum cans on campus, organizing service projects through fraternities and sororities, and others. Here are the questions we asked students to consider after each volunteer activity:

* Describe the day's activities. What did you do? What was your purpose? Did anything unusual happen?

* What insights have you had about your work and its connections to issues discussed in class?

The main difficulty that students experienced was addressing the second question about insights and connections. At the beginning of the semester, many students would merely summarize the day's activities rather than make connections. In order to get needed feedback, students turned in their journals weekly, and I responded to them in the form of letters. I encouraged them not to just summarize what they did but to try and find connections between their ideas and their actions. One example comes from a student's journal entry after an evening of working with young children in an arts class he created:

   I guess the whole evening had me thinking about Dewey's `Experience and
   Thinking,' particularly his definition at the beginning. I had gone through
   the `trying'--setting up, helping the kids and supporting their ideas and
   got feedback from the children. I guess this is what the `undergoing' is;
   the experience I got in return from them. I got to see the children's joy
   as well as their ability to focus on something, put their minds to
   something. It was as if they molded their lumps into more intricate lumps,
   they were doing the same with their lives.

This student's journal entry, then, is an example of making connections between the reading and the volunteer work: applying the ideas of Dewey when working with young children as a volunteer and reflecting upon this process in his journal. Later in the semester, this same student continues to make connections by pondering issues of moral development after a film about the Milgram experiment and Kohlberg's developmental stages. This student has an insight about his service work with the young children in the arts class:

   I guess the biggest thing I've gained isn't so much something but more of
   Something re-learned. These kids are reminding me what it's like to be a
   kid, and inadvertently, teaching me how I might apply it to adult life.

Therefore, through the use of journal entries, students made connections between the readings and their experiences as volunteers. Students often reflected upon how their volunteer work related to their lives:

   The class has dramatically changed my life. To be part of a class in which
   Everyone contributes something to society and shows that there is hope for
   people that are down ... What a great learning experience this was. I can
   look at this class as the underdog in a battle. Going up against the system
   the norm of our society ... I am very surprised with myself. I really
   didn't think I would like volunteering ... I didn't want to get too close
   to a person or have anyone rely on me. I am enjoying my work and definitely
   plan on continuing it after this class.

Therefore, the volunteer journal is an important means for students to make connections between the classroom, the community, and their lives.

Portfolio

At the end of the semester, students used these journal entries as the basis for their portfolio, which also included a mid-term take home exam, in-class compositions, any materials from their experience (photographs, fliers, and letters), and a final reflective essay. And in this final reflective essay, students responded to the following questions:

* As you think about what you've written, observed, and discussed both in class and in your volunteer work, choose a metaphor for your experience this semester. Explain why you chose this metaphor.

* What connections have you discovered between your classwork and your volunteer work?

* What was the most valuable part of the semester? Why? What was not so valuable and why?

* What questions do you now have about citizenship and service?

Students responded with a variety of metaphors, from quilts to soup to light bulbs. By comparing their intellectual experiences to concrete objects, students made conclusions about their semester's work. For example, this student thinks of candles and Yeats:

   As I sit and reflect upon my experience in this class, only one metaphor
   comes to mind ... I AM A CANDLE. I am burning bright with inspiration. But
   it was not always this way. At the beginning of the year, I was a lump of
   wax, inside my glass shell, not exactly sure how to go about getting lit.
   Sure, I had all the things necessary for the lighting; I had desire which
   was my wick, and I had the wax to keep it going. All I needed was the
   spark. [This] class was it: Education is not the filling of a pail; it is
   the lighting of a fire (W. B. Yeats). (12/97)

I think this student's entry expresses an experience common to many students. Many are interested in service; however, they need the opportunity to enter this community "zone of proximal development." They need a spark.

Conclusion

Even though service-learning courses, such as CSP, are becoming more popular, service-learning projects are often difficult to start; as Thomas Ehrlich writes:

   Many faculty members in the arts and sciences believe that the
   undergraduate academic experience should occur in an ivory tower surrounded
   by an invisible moat separating the college or university from the society
   it serves (511).

Education needs to escape such a tower and connect with community. In Richard Rorty's Achieving Our Country, he writes about how academics are too often spectators rather than agents for change. In other words, professors work on theory and neglect action. A commitment to service and reflection upon what it means to be an active citizen is an important component to a university education. When professors preach against the system in their classroom, admonish students for their complaint that college classes have nothing to do with the real world, and depress students with statistics of hunger, poverty, and injustice, I can't help but think of what Eldridge Cleaver once said, "You're either part of the solution or part of the problem."

However, it seems important to keep asking that important and subversive question: why? We need to continue examining how our classes can encourage reflection and active learning. One danger for service-learning is the assumption that service-learning will automatically give students a meaningful learning experience. As teachers, we need to reflect upon how service-learning can help our classes learn. The central connection, then, between Vygotsky, Dewey, and service-learning is the idea of education giving students the chance to learn from different communities and that it be relevant and meaningful.(6) Vygotsky and Dewey teach us that students are not receptacles for knowledge or pails ready to be filled. Vygotsky and Dewey teach us that students learn socially. If we as writing teachers want to follow these ideas, then we need to encourage what we do in the classroom to be important for their lives.(7) Writing personal essays matter. Writing persuasive papers matter. Service-learning is another path in getting to what matters: students becoming reflective, active learners.

Notes

(1) For example, Vygotsky observes young children using egocentric speech (talking to themselves or talking out loud) when solving a task. Children use the language of their environment to solve problems, and eventually this "[s]ocialized speech . is turned inward" (27). Vygotsky, then, challenges developmental theories of learning: "Rather, the developmental process lags behind the learning process; this sequence results in zones of proximal development" (90).

(2) In "My Pedagogic Creed," Dewey writes: "I believe that the only true education comes through the stimulation of the child's powers by the demands of the social situations in which he finds himself. Through these demands he is stimulated to act as a member of a unity, to emerge from his original narrowness of action and feeling and to conceive of himself from the standpoint of the welfare of the group to which he belongs. Through the responses which others make to his own activities, he comes to know what these mean in social terms ... For instance, through the response which is made to the child's instincitive babblings, the child comes to know what those babblings mean; they are transformed into articulate language and thus the child is introduced into the consolidated wealth of ideas and emotions which are now summed up in language" (229).

(3) For an application of Dewey's theories for the classroom, see Fishman and McCarthy's John Dewey and the Challenge of Classroom Practice.

(4) In an essay that makes connections between Vygotsky, Dewey, and the externalism of Donald Davidson, David R. Russell agrees that teaching writing is a social act, but he argues that the problem with the typical freshman composition course is that it usually lacks content.

(5) See AAHE'S Writing the Community.

(6) See also Paulo Freire's Pedagogy of the Oppressed.

(7) As Marsha, a teacher described in Roskelly and Ronald's study of romantic/pragmatic pedagogy, says to her class, "I want what you're doing to be real work ... I want it to matter" (150).

Bibliography

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Russell, David R. "Vygotsky, Dewey, and Externalism: Beyond the Student/Discipline Dichotomy." Journal of Advanced Composition 13.1 (1993): 173-97.

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Glenn Hutchinson is a Ph.D. candidate at the University of North Carolina-Greensboro and Lecturer in the English department at UNC Charlotte. <[e-mail]>.