Serologic evidence of West Nile virus transmission, Jamaica, West Indies. (Dispatches).In spring 2002, an intensive avian serosurvey was initiated in Jamaica, Puerto Rico Puerto Rico (pwār`tō rē`kō), island (2005 est. pop. 3,917,000), 3,508 sq mi (9,086 sq km), West Indies, c.1,000 mi (1,610 km) SE of Miami, Fla. , and Mexico. We collected >1,600 specimens from resident and nonresident neotropicai migratory birds before their northerly migrations. Plaque reduction neutralization test neutralization test n. See protection test. results indicated specific neutralizing antibodies to West Nile virus West Nile virus, microorganism and the infection resulting from it, which typically produces no symptoms or a flulike condition. The virus is a flavivirus and is related to a number of viruses that cause encephalitis. in 11 resident species from Jamaica. ********** West Nile virus (WNV WNV West Nile Virus WNV World Net Visions ) is maintained in nature between birds and Culex species This is a list of described Culex species around the world, as of 2006. Subspecies have been omitted. There are possibly errors and inaccuracies in this list that stem from the conversion from the source. Please check the original source when in doubt. mosquitoes (1,2). Unlike other viruses maintained in bird and mosquito transmission cycles (for example, St. Louis encephalitis St. Louis encephalitis see St. Louis encephalitis. , western equine encephalomyelitis Noun 1. equine encephalomyelitis - encephalitis caused by a virus that is transmitted by a mosquito from an infected horse equine encephalitis cephalitis, encephalitis, phrenitis - inflammation of the brain usually caused by a virus; symptoms include , and eastern equine encephalomyelitis Eastern equine encephalomyelitis see encephalomyelitis. ), the WNV strain responsible for the current epizootic ep·i·zo·ot·ic adj. Affecting a large number of animals at the same time within a particular region or geographic area. Used of a disease. ep in the Western Hemisphere Western Hemisphere Part of Earth comprising North and South America and the surrounding waters. Longitudes 20° W and 160° E are often considered its boundaries. is associated with a high number of avian deaths (3). Although crows and other corvids appear to be especially susceptible to disease (4), WNV has been documented in >190 bird species, including neotropical migratory species and exotic zoo specimens (5). Birds have been implicated im·pli·cate tr.v. im·pli·cat·ed, im·pli·cat·ing, im·pli·cates 1. To involve or connect intimately or incriminatingly: evidence that implicates others in the plot. 2. in spreading WNV during migratory events in Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Middle East (6-9). Because of the apparent ease of infecting a multitude of avian hosts, WNV can potentially be introduced during annual migratory events in the Western Hemisphere. Predicting the incursion in·cur·sion n. 1. An aggressive entrance into foreign territory; a raid or invasion. 2. The act of entering another's territory or domain. 3. of WNV into the tropics tropics, also called tropical zone or torrid zone, all the land and water of the earth situated between the Tropic of Cancer at lat. 23 1-2°N and the Tropic of Capricorn at lat. 23 1-2°S. is complicated by our incomplete knowledge regarding geographic connectivity in populations of migratory birds between winter and summer. We do not know where most species of migratory birds from North America North America, third largest continent (1990 est. pop. 365,000,000), c.9,400,000 sq mi (24,346,000 sq km), the northern of the two continents of the Western Hemisphere. spend their winter, where wintering birds spend their summer, or the routes they use while in transit. Evidence from mark-and-recapture efforts suggests that birds from the northeastern United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. tend to winter in the southeastern United States and Greater Antilles Greater Antilles: see West Indies. (e.g., Puerto Rico, Jamaica) whereas birds from the western United States Noun 1. western United States - the region of the United States lying to the west of the Mississippi River West Santa Fe Trail - a trail that extends from Missouri to New Mexico; an important route for settlers moving west in the 19th century migrate to Mexico and Central America (10-12). In response to the potential introduction of WNV in tropical America during the fall migrations, we established a network of monitoring sites on the overwintering o·ver·win·ter·ing n. The persistence of an infectious agent in its vector for an extended period, as in the cooler winter months, during which the vector has no opportunity to be reinfected or to infect another host. grounds of neotropical migratory birds in Jamaica, Puerto Rico, and Mexico. The Study The primary goal of the monitoring system was to obtain a large number of blood specimens from birds belonging to as many species as possible across the Caribbean. At seven study sites in Jamaica, Puerto Rico, and the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico, we erected 15 mist nets (12-m) daily for 3 to 4 weeks during January through March 2002. We collected 1,619 avian blood specimens, which represented 98 species, 25 families, and eight orders. In Jamaica, 542 samples were collected from Westmoreland, Manchester, and St. Catherine Parishes; 649 samples were collected at Roosevelt Roads Naval Station Roosevelt Roads Naval Station is an inoperative, former United States military air base in the town of Ceiba, Puerto Rico. History Future U.S. in Puerto Rico; and 430 samples were collected from the states of Yucatan and Campeche in Mexico (Table 1). At the time of capture, all migratory birds were banded with an aluminum U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service band and 3-5 breast feathers were removed for isotope analysis. Resident birds had outer rectrices cut. All birds were evaluated for age and gender if possible, bled with microcapillary tubes from the brachial vein brachial vein n. Either of two veins in either arm accompanying the brachial artery and emptying into the axillary vein. , and released. Blood was added immediately to BA-1 medium, consisting of M199 medium with Hank's salts, 1% bovine albumin, TRIS TRIS tromethamine. tris (tris) 1. tromethamine. 2. tris(2,3-dibromopropyl) phosphate. base (tris [hydroxymethyl] aminomethane), sodium bicarbonate sodium bicarbonate or sodium hydrogen carbonate, chemical compound, NaHCO3, a white crystalline or granular powder, commonly known as bicarbonate of soda or baking soda. It is soluble in water and very slightly soluble in alcohol. , 20% fetal bovine serum Fetal bovine serum ( or foetal bovine serum) is serum taken from the fetuses of cows. Fetal Bovine Serum (or FBS) is the most widely used serum in the culturing of cells. In some papers the expression foetal calf serum is used. (FBS FBS abbr. fasting blood sugar FBS Fasting blood sugar. See Fasting glucose. ), and antibiotics. The samples were placed in a cooler on ice packs until storage in a -20[degrees]C freezer. Samples were sent on dry ice or hand-carried on ice packs to the Arbovirus arbovirus Any of a large group of viruses that develop in arthropods (chiefly mosquitoes and ticks). The name derives from “arthropod-borne virus.” The spheroidal virus particle is encased in a fatty membrane and contains RNA; it causes no apparent harm to the Laboratories, Wadsworth Center, New York New York, state, United States New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of State Department of Health for serologic se·rol·o·gy n. pl. se·rol·o·gies 1. The science that deals with the properties and reactions of serums, especially blood serum. 2. analysis and virus isolation attempts. Specimens were screened at 1:100 for antibodies against flaviviruses by using an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay n. ELISA. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) A diagnostic blood test used to screen patients for AIDS or other viruses. (ELISA ELISA (e-li´sah) Enzyme-Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay; any enzyme immunoassay using an enzyme-labeled immunoreactant and an immunosorbent. ELISA n. ) (13). Samples with a P/N (Part/Number) Common shorthand for part number. ratio >2.0 were tested further by a plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT) for Ilheus virus (ILHV), St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV SLEV Saint Louis Encephalitis Virus SLEV Surround Level ), and WNV, as described (14). The particular virus strains used for the PRNTs were ILHV (original), SLEV 59268 Parton par·ton n. Any of the point particles believed to be a constituent of hadrons, now known as quarks. No longer in technical use. [part(icle) + -on1.] , and WNV (3100365), an isolate from a pool of Culex Culex /Cu·lex/ (ku´leks) a genus of mosquitoes found throughout the world, many species of which are vectors of disease-producing organisms. Cu·lex n. sp. mosquitoes collected in Staten Island, New York. The indirect ELISA was chosen to screen the samples in order to take advantage of its ability to detect antibodies against a wide range of flaviviruses. PRNT was used as a confirmatory assay to differentiate among recognized flaviviruses (15,16). Briefly, serial dilutions of test samples were mixed with an equal amount of virus suspension containing 200 PFU/0.1 mL and incubated at 37[degrees]C for 1 h. We then added 0.05 mL of each virus-diluted blood sample onto 1 well of a 12-well tissue culture plate containing confuent monolayers of African green monkey kidney cells (Vero). The plate was incubated for 1 h at 37[degrees]C, after which an agarose agarose more highly purified form of agar with similar uses to agar and widely used in the separation of nucleic acid fragments. overlay was added and incubation was continued. When virus plaques became visible, we added a second overlay containing neutral red and counted plaques. The antibody titer antibody titer The amount of a specific antibody present in the serum, usually as a result of an acquired infection; titers for IgM usually rise abruptly at the time of infection–acute phase and fall slowly; during the 'convalescent' phase, IgG ↑ and is reported is the dilution of serum that inhibited 90% of the test virus inoculum inoculum /in·oc·u·lum/ (-ok´u-lum) pl. inoc´ula material used in inoculation. in·oc·u·lum n. pl. . For virus isolation attempts using confluent con·flu·ent adj. 1. Flowing together; blended into one. 2. Merging or running together so as to form a mass, as sores in a rash. Vero cell monolayers, 0.1 mL of each serum specimen was added onto one well of a six-well tissue culture plate, incubated for 1 h, rinsed with phosphate-buffered saline, and then the cells were refed with minimum essential medium containing 2% FBS. Cells were monitored once a day for 5 days for cytopathic effect. Cell cultures showing any abnormal cell morphology were then blind passaged after 5 days. ELISA results indicated 34 of 1,413 serum specimens tested from the three study sites contained immunoglobulin G immunoglobulin G n. Abbr. IgG The most abundant class of antibodies found in blood serum and lymph and active against bacteria, fungi, viruses, and foreign particles. Immunoglobulin G antibodies trigger action of the complement system. antibody against a flavivirus. Of the 34 reactive samples representing 20 bird species, 27 were collected in Jamaica (26 residents, 1 migrant), 5 in Puerto Rico (3 residents, 2 migrants), and 2 in Mexico (1 resident, 1 migrant). PRNTs on the Jamaican bird samples indicated 18 WNV infections, 3 SLEV infections, 5 undetermined flavivirus infections (positive results for two or more viruses without a fourfold difference in antibody titer); one additional reactive serum sample was negative for the three viruses tested. Results on the serum samples collected in Puerto Rico indicated one WNV infection in a migratory bird and one SLEV infection in a resident bird; three additional reactive serum samples were negative for all three viruses tested. In Mexico, we found evidence of WNV infection in one migrant bird and SLEV infection in one resident bird (Table 2). Virus isolation attempts were negative for all 1,603 specimens tested (16 samples destroyed). Negative isolation results were not entirely unexpected, considering that birds are viremic for a short period of time (17) and maintaining a proper cold chain (i.e., temperatures) to preserve virus is difficult when working in the tropics. Conclusions We detected neutralizing antibodies to WNV in resident birds from two parishes in Jamaica. This detection marks the earliest evidence of WNV introduction into the neotropics; WNV antibodies have been demonstrated in birds and horses in Mexico (late 2002, spring 2003) (18,19) and detected in resident birds from the Dominican Republic (spring 2003) (20). This evidence of WNV in the neotropics may be an important development in the spread of the virus. The tropics provide all the necessary components (i.e., high temperatures, dense avian populations, and large numbers of Culex sp. mosquitoes) to maintain an enzootic en·zo·ot·ic adj. Prevalent among or restricted to animals of a specific geographic area. Used of a disease. n. An enzootic disease. enzootic peculiar to or present constantly in a location. See also endemic. focus. Furthermore, the climates of Mexico and the Caribbean are suitable for year-round transmission of the virus. No dead birds have been reported in Jamaica, but surveillance activity there is less intensive than in the United States; the study sites, being rural in nature, are not conducive to observing dead birds. Another contributing factor to the lack of reports of dead birds may be the rapid decomposition of dead birds as a result of the heat, humidity, and detritivore detritivore An organism that feeds on and breaks down dead plant or animal matter, returning essential nutrients to the ecosystem. Detritivores include microorganisms such as bacteria and protists as well as larger organisms such as fungi, insects, worms, foragers, such as ants. Arbovirus activity, particularly of flaviviruses, is well documented in the Caribbean and Mexico. Dengue dengue or breakbone fever or dandy fever Infectious, disabling mosquito-borne fever. Other symptoms include extreme joint pain and stiffness, intense pain behind the eyes, a return of fever after brief pause, and a characteristic rash. and yellow fever viruses yellow fever virus n. An arbovirus of the genus Flavivirus that causes yellow fever and is transmitted by mosquitoes. are recurring public health threats in these areas. SLEV is endemic to Mexico and has been isolated from mosquitoes and one Northern mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos) nestling in Jamaica (21). This disease is still active in the region, and its known range may have expanded into Puerto Rico, considering the one seropositive seropositive /se·ro·pos·i·tive/ (-poz´i-tiv) showing positive results on serological examination; showing a high level of antibody. se·ro·pos·i·tive adj. Caribbean elaenia (Elaenia martinica) sampled during this study, although the antibody may have resulted from infection with yet another flavivirus. Neutralizing antibodies to WNV in migratory birds collected in Mexico and Puerto Rico, coupled with the apparent absence of antibody to WNV in the resident bird population, indicate that infection likely occurred in an enzootic area of the United States, but this observation shows that individual birds from at least three species of neotropical migratory birds have survived WNV infection and may serve as hosts for spreading the virus. The results from this study suggest that WNV now appears to be established in Jamaica, on the basis of the neutralizing antibodies to WNV found in the resident bird population.
Table 1. Number of birds collected at seven field sites in the
Caribbean
Field site Migratory Resident Total Flavivirus
birds birds positives (%) (a)
Westmoreland Parish,
Jamaica 156 232 388 18 (4.6)
Manchester Parish
(site 1), Jamaica 2 21 23 1 (4.4)
Manchester Parish
(site 2), Jamaica 24 83 107 4 (3.7)
St. Catherine Parish,
Jamaica 12 12 24 4 (16.7)
Yucatan, Mexico 70 102 172 2 (1.2)
Campeche, Mexico 114 144 258 0 (0.0)
Mexico totals 184 246 430 2 (0.5)
Puerto Rico (one
collection
site) totals 391 256 647 5 (1.1) (b)
Jamaica totals 194 348 542 27 (5.0)
Totals 769 850 1,619 34 (2.4) (c)
(a) based on screening enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)
results.
(b) Results based on 441 samples suitable for ELISA (206 samples
were blood clots only).
(c) Results based on 1,413 samples tested by ELISA.
Table 2. Ninety percent plaque reduction neutralization titers to West
Nile virus, St. Louis encephalitis virus, and Ilheus virus in
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay reactive bird specimens (a)
Field site Species ILHV SLEV
Westmoreland Parish, White-chinned thrush 40 80
Jamaica (Turdus aurantius) (b)
White-chinned thrush <40 <40
(T. aurantius) (b)
Jamaican elaenia <40 160
(Myiopagis cotta) (b)
Bananaquit (Coereba <40 80
flaveola) (b)
Loggerhead kingbird <40 <40
(Tyrannus caudifasciatus)
(b)
Bananaquit (C. flaveola) <40 <40
(b)
White-chinned thrush <40 40
(Turdus aurantius) (b)
Bananaquit (C. flaveola) <40 <40
(b)
Northern mockingbird <40 <40
(Mimus polyglottos) (b)
Caribbean dove (Leptotila <40 [greater
jamaicensis) (b) than or
equal to]
1,280
Jamaican elaenia <40 <40
(Mviopagis cotta) (b)
Bananaquit (C. flaveola) <40 40
(b)
White-chinned thrush <40 40
(Turdus aurantius) (b)
Jamaican elaenia <40 80
(Myiopagis cotta) (b)
Common ground-dove <40 <40
(Columbina passerina) (b)
Caribbean dove (Leptotila <40 <40
jamaicensis) (b)
Black-faced grassquit <40 <40
(Tiaris bicolor) (b)
Jamaican vireo (Vireo <40 <40
modestus) (b)
Manchester Parish Caribbean dove (Leptotila <40 <40
(site 1), Jamaica jamaicensis) (b)
Manchester Parish Black-faced grassquit <40 <40
(site 2), Jamaica (Tiaris bicolor) (b)
Jamaican oriole (Icterus <40 160
leucopteryx) (b)
White-eyed thrush <40 <40
(Turdus jamaicensis) (b)
Orangequit (Euneornis <40 <40
campestris) (b)
St. Catherine Greater Antillean grackle 40 160
Parish, Jamaica (Quiscalus niger) (b)
Loggerhead kingbird 80 320
(Tyrannus caudifasciatus)
(b)
Golden warbler (Dendroica <40 80
petechia sp.) (c)
Northern waterthrush <40 40
(Seiurus noveboracensis)
(d)
Yucatan State, Caribbean dove (Leptotila <40 [greater
Mexico jamaicensis) (b) than or
equal to]
1,280
Yellow warbler (Dendroica <40 40
petechia) (d)
Roosevelt Roads Prairie warbler <40 <40
Naval Station, (Dendroica discolor) (d)
Puerto Rico Golden warbler <40 <40
(Dendroica petechia sp.)
(c)
Pearly-eyed thrasher <40 <40
(Margarops fuscatus) (b)
Caribbean elaenia <40 80
(Elaenia martinica) (b)
Black and white warbler <40 40
(Mniotilta varia) (d)
Field site Species WNV
Westmoreland Parish, White-chinned thrush 640
Jamaica (Turdus aurantius) (b)
White-chinned thrush 320
(T. aurantius) (b)
Jamaican elaenia 640
(Myiopagis cotta) (b)
Bananaquit (Coereba 160
flaveola) (b)
Loggerhead kingbird 320
(Tyrannus caudifasciatus)
(b)
Bananaquit (C. flaveola) 160
(b)
White-chinned thrush [greater
(Turdus aurantius) (b) than or
equal to]
1,280
Bananaquit (C. flaveola) 80
(b)
Northern mockingbird 320
(Mimus polyglottos) (b)
Caribbean dove (Leptotila 80
jamaicensis) (b)
Jamaican elaenia 160
(Mviopagis cotta) (b)
Bananaquit (C. flaveola) 80
(b)
White-chinned thrush 640
(Turdus aurantius) (b)
Jamaican elaenia <40
(Myiopagis cotta) (b)
Common ground-dove 160
(Columbina passerina) (b)
Caribbean dove (Leptotila <40
jamaicensis) (b)
Black-faced grassquit 320
(Tiaris bicolor) (b)
Jamaican vireo (Vireo 80
modestus) (b)
Manchester Parish Caribbean dove (Leptotila 80
(site 1), Jamaica jamaicensis) (b)
Manchester Parish Black-faced grassquit 160
(site 2), Jamaica (Tiaris bicolor) (b)
Jamaican oriole (Icterus [greater
leucopteryx) (b) than or
equal to]
1,280
White-eyed thrush 320
(Turdus jamaicensis) (b)
Orangequit (Euneornis 40
campestris) (b)
St. Catherine Greater Antillean grackle 160
Parish, Jamaica (Quiscalus niger) (b)
Loggerhead kingbird 320
(Tyrannus caudifasciatus)
(b)
Golden warbler (Dendroica <40
petechia sp.) (c)
Northern waterthrush 320
(Seiurus noveboracensis)
(d)
Yucatan State, Caribbean dove (Leptotila 80
Mexico jamaicensis) (b)
Yellow warbler (Dendroica 320
petechia) (d)
Roosevelt Roads Prairie warbler <40
Naval Station, (Dendroica discolor) (d)
Puerto Rico Golden warbler <40
(Dendroica petechia sp.)
(c)
Pearly-eyed thrasher <40
(Margarops fuscatus) (b)
Caribbean elaenia <40
(Elaenia martinica) (b)
Black and white warbler [greater
(Mniotilta varia) (d) than or
equal to]
1,280
Field site Species Interpretation
Westmoreland Parish, White-chinned thrush WNV
Jamaica (Turdus aurantius) (b)
White-chinned thrush WNV
(T. aurantius) (b)
Jamaican elaenia WNV
(Myiopagis cotta) (b)
Bananaquit (Coereba Flavivirus
flaveola) (b)
Loggerhead kingbird WNV
(Tyrannus caudifasciatus)
(b)
Bananaquit (C. flaveola) WNV
(b)
White-chinned thrush WNV
(Turdus aurantius) (b)
Bananaquit (C. flaveola) WNV
(b)
Northern mockingbird WNV
(Mimus polyglottos) (b)
Caribbean dove (Leptotila SLEV
jamaicensis) (b)
Jamaican elaenia WNV
(Mviopagis cotta) (b)
Bananaquit (C. flaveola) Flavivirus
(b)
White-chinned thrush WNV
(Turdus aurantius) (b)
Jamaican elaenia SLEV
(Myiopagis cotta) (b)
Common ground-dove WNV
(Columbina passerina) (b)
Caribbean dove (Leptotila Negative
jamaicensis) (b)
Black-faced grassquit WNV
(Tiaris bicolor) (b)
Jamaican vireo (Vireo WNV
modestus) (b)
Manchester Parish Caribbean dove (Leptotila WNV
(site 1), Jamaica jamaicensis) (b)
Manchester Parish Black-faced grassquit WNV
(site 2), Jamaica (Tiaris bicolor) (b)
Jamaican oriole (Icterus WNV
leucopteryx) (b)
White-eyed thrush WNV
(Turdus jamaicensis) (b)
Orangequit (Euneornis Flavivirus
campestris) (b)
St. Catherine Greater Antillean grackle Flavivirus
Parish, Jamaica (Quiscalus niger) (b)
Loggerhead kingbird Flavivirus
(Tyrannus caudifasciatus)
(b)
Golden warbler (Dendroica SLEV
petechia sp.) (c)
Northern waterthrush WNV
(Seiurus noveboracensis)
(d)
Yucatan State, Caribbean dove (Leptotila SLEV
Mexico jamaicensis) (b)
Yellow warbler (Dendroica WNV
petechia) (d)
Roosevelt Roads Prairie warbler Negative
Naval Station, (Dendroica discolor) (d)
Puerto Rico Golden warbler Negative
(Dendroica petechia sp.)
(c)
Pearly-eyed thrasher Negative
(Margarops fuscatus) (b)
Caribbean elaenia SLEV
(Elaenia martinica) (b)
Black and white warbler WNV
(Mniotilta varia) (d)
(a) ILHV, Ilheus virus; SLEV, St. Louis encephalitis virus; WNV, West
Nile virus.
(b) Resident bird.
(c) Resident yellow warbler subspecies.
(d) Migrant bird.
Acknowledgments We thank Brian Gibbons Famous people named Gibbons include:
French bacteriologist. His work with the diphtheria bacillus led to the development of antitoxins to neutralize pathogenic toxins. , Javier Salgado-Ortiz, Joe Smith, and Jenn Barg for collecting field samples and Robert Reitsma, Kim Kent, and Donna Young for tremendous logistical and laboratory support. This work was supported by Grant Agreement Number U50/CCU320544-01 from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), agency of the U.S. Public Health Service since 1973, with headquarters in Atlanta; it was established in 1946 as the Communicable Disease Center. (CDC See Control Data, century date change and Back Orifice. CDC - Control Data Corporation ) and the National Science Foundation (NSF NSF - National Science Foundation ), Grant Number DEB 0089565. Its contents are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not represent the official views of CDC or NSF. References (1.) Hayes CG. 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J Hyg Epidemiol Microbiol Immunol 1977;21:353-9. (9.) Rappole JH, Derrickson SR, Hubalek Z. Migratory birds and spread of West Nile virus in the Western Hemisphere. Emerg Infect Dis 2000;6:319-28. (10.) Johnson LS, Wise J. Wintering grounds of North American North American named after North America. North American blastomycosis see North American blastomycosis. North American cattle tick see boophilusannulatus. house wrens as revealed by band recoveries. J Field Ornithol 2000;71:50 t-5. (11.) Webster MS, Marra PP, Haig SM, Bensch S, Holmes RT. Links between worlds: unraveling migratory connectivity. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 2002; 17:76-82. (12.) Elphick J. The atlas of bird migration. New York: Random House; 1995. (13.) Ebel GD, Dupuis AP, Nicholas D, Young D, Maffei J, Kramer LD. Detection by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay of antibodies to West Nile virus in birds. Emerg Infect Dis 2002;8:979-82. (14.) Lindsey HS, Calisher CH, Matthews JH. Serum dilution neutralization test for California group virus identification and serology Serology The division of biological science concerned with antigen-antibody reactions in serum. It properly encompasses any of these reactions, but is often used in a limited sense to denote laboratory diagnostic tests, especially for syphilis. . J Clin Microbiol 1976;4:503-10. (15.) DeMadrid AT, Porterfield JS. The flaviviruses (group B arboviruses): a cross-neutralization study. J Gen Virol 1974;23:91-6. (16.) Calisher CH, Karabatsos N, Dalrymple JM, Shope RE, Porterfield JS, Westaway EG, et al. Antigenic relationships between flaviviruses as determined by cross-neutralization tests with polyclonal polyclonal /poly·clo·nal/ (-klon´'l) 1. derived from different cells. 2. pertaining to several clones. polyclonal derived from different cells; pertaining to several clones. antisera. J Gen Virol 1989;70:37-43. (17.) Komar N, Langevin S, Hinten S, Nemeth N, Edwards E, Hettler D, et al. Experimental infection of North American birds <onlyinclude> This list of North American birds is a comprehensive listing of all the bird species known from the North American continent north of Mexico. </onlyinclude> with the New York 1999 strain of West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 2003;9:311-22. (18.) West Nile virus, equine, 2002--Mexico (Tamaulipas). ProMed mail archive no. 20030325.0739. [cited 25 March 2003]. Available from: URL: http://www.promedmail.org (19.) West Nile virus, birds--Mexico (North). ProMed mail archive no.: 20030315.0640. [Cited 15 March 2003]. Available from: URL: http://www.promedmail.org (20.) West Nile virus, birds--Dominican Republic. ProMed mail archive no.: 20030315.0645. [Cited 15 March 2003]. Available from: URL: http://www.promedmail.org (21.) Belle EA, King SD, Griffiths BB, Grant LS. Epidemiological investigation for arboviruses in Jamaica, West Indies. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1980;29:667-75. Address for correspondence: Alan P. Dupuis II, Griffin Laboratory, 5668 State Farm Rd., Slingerlands, NY 12159, USA; fax: (518) 869-4530; email: apd05@health.state.ny.us Alan P. Dupuis II, * Peter P. Marra, ([dagger]) and Laura D. Kramer * * New York State Department of Health, Slingerlands, New York Slingerlands is a hamlet in the Town of Bethlehem, Albany County, New York, USA. The community is in the Eastern Standard time zone. The latitude of Slingerlands is 42.629N. The longitude is -73.865W. The zip code for Slingerlands is 12159. , USA; and ([dagger]) Smithsonian Environmental Research Center The Smithsonian Environmental Research Center (SERC) is a 2,800-acre environmental research and educational facility operated by the Smithsonian Institution located in Edgewater, MD on the Rhode and West Rivers. , Edgewater, Maryland, USA Mr. Dupuis is an assistant research scientist in the Arbovirus Laboratories, Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health. His research focuses on the role of birds in the maintenance of arbovirus transmission cycles and dispersal of the virus. |
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