Sensation seeking and high-risk recreation.There is much evidence of the growing popularity of high-risk recreational activities. Interest in extreme sports extreme sports Sports events characterized by high speed or high risk. Such sports include aggressive inline skating, wakeboarding, street luge, skateboarding, and freestyle bicycle events (wherein tricks such as back flips are performed on a bicycle). -- including sport climbing Sport climbing is a style of rock climbing that relies on permanent anchors fixed to the rock, especially bolts, for protection. Sport climbing places an emphasis on gymnastic ability, strength and endurance, while virtually eliminating the need to place protection while climbing. , bungee jumping bungee jumping Sport in which the jumper falls from a high place with a rubber (“bungee”) cord attached both to his or her feet and to the jump site, and, after a period of headfirst free fall, is bounced partway back when the cord rebounds from its maximum , street-luge racing, and sky surfing sky surfing Sports medicine An 'extreme sport' in which the participant skydives with a graphite snowboard, which allows performance of various gyrations while free falling. See Extreme sports, Novelty seeking behavior. -- culminated in the 1995 X Games X Games Sports medicine The official Olympics of 'extreme sports' sponsored by ESPN, held annually during the summer. See Extreme sports. , a multi-sport event A multi-sport event is a competition in which athletes compete in a number of different sports. The first modern multi-sport event organised were the Olympic Games, organised by the International Olympic Committee (est. 1894) for the first time in 1896 in Athens, Greece. sponsored by ESPN ESPN Entertainment and Sports Programming Network (Krulewitz, 1994). The degree of risk varies, and perceived risk may not be congruent con·gru·ent adj. 1. Corresponding; congruous. 2. Mathematics a. Coinciding exactly when superimposed: congruent triangles. b. with actual risk in these activities, yet these clearly are all sensation-laden activities. Indeed, risk taking has been associated in research with sensation seeking (Rossi & Cereatti, 1993). Since the creation of the Sensation Seeking Scales in 1964 by Zuckerman, Kolin, Price, and Zoob, there has been a great deal of research conducted on this subject. The term sensation seeking was coined to describe the generalized trait that includes a diversity of risk-taking and sensation-seeking behaviors as well as the expressed intolerance of boredom. Sensation seeking, according to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. Zuckerman, is specifically defined as "the need for varied, novel, and complex sensations and experiences and the willingness to take physical and social risks for the sake of such experiences" (1979, p. 10). In 1983, Zuckerman wrote that his definition of sensation was not arbitrary but was based upon two decades of research using the Sensation Seeking Scales. He stressed the need for theoretically based research on sports participation. To date, Zuckerman has gone through six different revisions to improve the measurement of these sensation-seeking behaviors. Scale VI, which separates past experiences from desired future experiences for the Disinhibition dis·in·hi·bi·tion n. 1. A loss of inhibition, as through the influence of drugs or alcohol. 2. A temporary loss of an inhibition caused by an unrelated stimulus, such as a loud noise. and Thrill and Adventure Seeking sub-scales, is not as reliable as the fifth form. Most studies have utilized the Zuckerman Sensation Seeking Scale Form V (SSSV SSSV Sub-Surface Safety Valve (oilfield technology) SSSV Sub-Surface Safety Valve (oil and gas) ). This form remains the most valid and reliable and has the largest set of normative data (Zuckerman, 1994). The SSSV includes four sub-scale scores: Thrill and Adventure Seeking (TAS TAS abbr. 1. telephone answering system 2. true airspeed ); Experience Seeking (ES); Disinhibition (DIS); and Boredom Susceptibility (BS). The Adventure Seeking (TAS) sub-scale reflects an individual's desire to act in risky, impulsive im·pul·sive adj. 1. Inclined or tending to act on impulse rather than thought. 2. Motivated by or resulting from impulse. im·pul , and adventurous sports and activities, offering the individual unique sensations. The Experience Seeking (ES) sub-scale expresses the pursuit of new sensations through activities such as music, art, travel, and Psychedelic drugs The following is a list of psychedelic drugs of various classes. Entries marked with a # are "naturally" occurring. Serotonergic psychedelics (serotonin 5-HT2A receptor agonists) adj. Marked by interest in and behavior directed toward others or the environment as opposed to or to the exclusion of self; gregarious or outgoing: behaviors of an individual. The fourth sub-scale, Boredom Susceptibility (BS), reflects an antipathy to repetitive experiences (Cronin; 1991). These four sub-scale scores are combined to produce a Total Score (TS) instead of the General Scale (GS) score employed in the first four versions (Zuckerman, Eysenck & Eysenck, 1978). Some of the characteristics associated with sensation seekers include drug and alcohol consumption, cigarette smoking, reported high-risk sexual behaviors sexual behavior A person's sexual practices–ie, whether he/she engages in heterosexual or homosexual activity. See Sex life, Sexual life. , preference for stimulating foods, volunteering for unusual activities, attraction to physically risky sports, preference for perceptual complexity, and speeding (Zuckerman, 1979; Zuckerman & Neeb, 1980). High scores on the Sensation Seeking Scale have indicated that these individuals are likely to be involved with certain risky activities and behaviors (Zuckerman, 1979; Zuckerman, 1983), and high-risk sport participation tends to be higher in sensation seekers (Wagner & Houlihan, 1994). Sensation Seeking and High-Risk Recreation In 1983, Zuckerman reviewed the literature concerning sensation seeking and sports, evaluating high-, medium-, and low-risk sports. He concluded that those who participated in high-risk sports showed a higher level of sensation seeking. The current review focuses solely upon high-risk recreational activities (not high-risk nonrecreational activities such as criminal acts or substance abuse) and includes studies conducted both pre- and post-Zuckerman's 1983 review (Table 1).
TABLE 1. HIGH-RISK RECREATION AND SENSATION SEEKING
Risk Activity Author(s)/Date
Skydiving Hymbaugh & Garrett (1974)
Mountain sports/Rock climbing Fowler et al. (1980)
Cronin (1991)
Rossi & Cereatti (1993)
Breivik (1996)
Hang gliding Straub (1982)
Wagner & Houlihan (1994)
Skiing Conolly (1981)
Bouter et al. (1988)
Calhoon (1988)
Canoeing/Kayaking Campbell et al. (1993)
Schuett (1993)
Rodeo riding Rainey et al. (1992)
Risk Activity Comparison
Skydiving Non-skydiving controls
Mountain sports/Rock climbing Dental students
Volunteers
Control group
Everest climbers vs.
Elite climbers vs. Controls
Hang gliding Auto racers, Bowlers
Golfers
Skiing Ski instructors vs. Recreational
and Non-skiers
Reference group (Dutch)
Ski instructors vs. Non-skiers
Canoeing/Kayaking Normative scores
None, Multiple regression
Rodeo riding Hang gliders, Baseball players,
Wrestlers
Risk Activity Brief SS results
Skydiving Skydivers higher on SS scores
Mountain sports/Rock climbing Climbers higher on Total & TAS
Higher Total, ES & TAS
Higher on all but BS
Everest higher on TAS, ES,
BS & Total
Hang gliding Bowlers lowest, sig. difference
ES & BS
Higher on all measures
Skiing Highest Total, ES & TAS
Higher TAS
Higher TAS scores
Canoeing/Kayaking High SS scores for entire
simple
Rodeo riding Rodeo higher than Baseball
players; Hang gliders higher
than all others
Mountain sports and rock climbing rock climbing Sports medicine An 'extreme sport' in which the participant climbs rock formations, with or without ropes Injury risk Fractures, abrasions, death. See Extreme sports. are increasingly popular recreational pursuits. Cronin (1991) administered the SSSV to 20 members of a university mountain-climbing club and 21 control volunteers. Mountain climbers This list of climbers includes both mountaineers and rock climbers, since many (though not all) climbers engage in both types of activities. The list also includes boulderers and ice climbers. scored higher on the Total Score, Experience-Seeking, and Thrill and Adventure Seeking sub-scales. Rossi and Cereatti (1993) tested the hypothesis that high-risk sports are chosen by high sensation seekers, and compared five groups of athletes (control, physical education students, free-climbers, speleologists, and ski jumpers). The mountain athletes scored higher than controls in Total Score and in every sub-scale of the SSSV except Boredom Susceptibility. The number of accidents these athletes suffered correlated to Total Score and Thrill and Adventure Seeking, verifying the relationship of risk taking and sensation seeking. A third recent study (Breivik, 1996) examined sensation seeking and risk taking in successful Norwegian Everest expedition members. Elite climbers, sports students, and military recruits were reference groups. The Everest expedition members had very high scores on Total Score of the SSSV and on every subscale except Disinhibition, and these scores were significantly higher than students and military recruits. The elite climbers also demonstrated significantly higher scores than controls on all factors except Disinhibition. Other factors investigated by the author indicated that, as expected, Everest climbers are risk takers Risk Takers is a Canadian television documentary series, which profiles people in dangerous professions. The show originally aired on Discovery Channel Canada, and also airs on the North American channel Discovery HD Theater. as well as sensation seekers. In several of the studies in Table 1, Disinhibition was an exception to the high sub-scale scores for high-risk athletes. As this sub-scale refers to activities such as drinking, partying, gambling, sex, and other social stimulation behaviors, researchers were not surprised by the lower scores for this subscale for athletes (Breivik, 1996; Straub, 1982). In 1982, Straub compared male hang gliders, auto racers, and bowlers on SSSV. He utilized stepwise stepwise incremental; additional information is added at each step. stepwise multiple regression used when a large number of possible explanatory variables are available and there is difficulty interpreting the partial regression multiple discriminant functions analysis, which indicated that except for the Thrill and Adventure Seeking and Disinhibition subscales, the high-risk athletes scored significantly higher than the bowlers. Wagner and Houlihan (1994) chose hang gliders and golfers in another study of sensation seeking and trait anxiety. Hang gliders (n=170) scored significantly higher than golfers (n=90) on each of the four SSSV sub-scales and on Total Score. No significant difference in trait anxiety level between the two groups was found. Skiing is another risk activity investigated by Bouter, Kripschild, Feij, and Volovics (1988) and by Calhoon (1988). Bouter et al. used a validated Dutch version of the SSSV. They concluded that skiers had a high Thrill and Adventure Seeking (TAS) score compared to a Dutch reference group. In this study, males had higher TAS, Disinhibition scores, and Total Scores. All sub-scale and Total Scores decreased with increasing age. This investigation compared Thrill and Adventure Seeking scores for injured and non-injured skiers, and TAS scores were lower among the injured. They speculated that perhaps skiers with high TAS levels were more experienced in balancing and estimating their risk levels. They recommended more research into this relationship. Calhoon (1988) investigated both physiological measures and sensation seeking of ski instructors and patrolmen versus university students, both male and female, ages 18-39. The skier group scored significantly higher on SSSV measures. The scales that reflected an interest in trying new and risky activities most clearly delineated de·lin·e·ate tr.v. de·lin·e·at·ed, de·lin·e·at·ing, de·lin·e·ates 1. To draw or trace the outline of; sketch out. 2. To represent pictorially; depict. 3. the two groups. White-water canoeing and kayaking Kayaking is the use of a kayak for moving across water. Kayaking is differentiated from canoeing by the fact that a kayak has a closed cockpit and a canoe has an open cockpit. They also use a two bladed paddle. Another major difference is in the way the paddler sits in the boat. are other risk activities. Campbell, Tyrrell, and Zingaro (1993) compared the scores of male and female members of canoe clubs with normative scores. Significantly higher Thrill and Adventure scores were noted for canoe and kayak kayak (kī`ăk), Eskimo canoe, originally made of sealskin stretched over a framework of whalebone or driftwood. It is completely covered except for the opening in which the paddler sits. paddlers. Schuett (1993) also tested white-water kayakers. He expanded on previous research by developing a model of recreation involvement. One of the independent variables used in the development of this model was the SSSV. Using multiple regression Multiple regression The estimated relationship between a dependent variable and more than one explanatory variable. analyses, this author concluded that sensation seeking was a significant predictor to each of the four sub-scales of enduring involvement in risk recreation (enjoyment, centrality, self-expression, and importance), but not for the multi-dimensional criterion variable of enduring involvement. Rainey, Amunatequi, Agocs, and Larick (1992) completed an interesting study in which they compared rodeo riders, hang-glider pilots, college baseball College baseball is baseball as played on the intercollegiate level at institutions of higher education, predominantly in the United States. Compared to American football and basketball in the United States, college competition plays a less significant contribution to cultivating players, and college wrestlers. Analysis indicated that rodeo riders scored significantly higher than baseball players did, while hang gliders scored higher than the three other groups. These results concerning hang-glider pilots confirm earlier studies of high-risk activities and conform to Verb 1. conform to - satisfy a condition or restriction; "Does this paper meet the requirements for the degree?" fit, meet coordinate - be co-ordinated; "These activities coordinate well" Zuckerman's model of sensation seeking. Finally, Blenner (1993) studied a heterogeneous group of 59 skydivers, hang gliders, rock climbers, ultralight ul·tra·light n. A recreational aircraft constructed of lightweight materials such as aluminum, graphite composites, or high-strength plastics, having an engine of roughly 15 to 40 horsepower and often resembling a hang glider with wings. pilots, scuba divers, motorcycle racers, and ocean kayakers. When compared with non-thrill-seeker controls (n=59), the thrill seekers Thrill Seekers was a television series aired in 1973 and 1974. It was hosted by Chuck Connors and featured people who did dangerous stunts. Other works Thrill Seekers (USA) / The Time Shifters described above were significantly higher than controls on all the SSSV scores. The highest mean subscore reported for the thrill seekers was on the Thrill and Adventure Seeking scale. Although females in general score lower in sensation seeking than males, in this study, female thrill seekers younger than 30 had mean scores higher than male thrill seekers on all SSS SSS abbr. sick sinus syndrome scales except DIS (SSS form IV). After conducting a discriminant function analysis Discriminant function analysis involves the predicting of a categorical dependent variable by one or more continuous or binary independent variables. It is statistically the opposite of MANOVA. , Blenner concluded that 83.5 percent of participants could be correctly classified as thrill seekers on the basis of SSS scores. The sub-scale Thrill and Adventure Seeking was the most important in differentiating thrill seekers from controls, providing behavioral evidence of the construct validity construct validity, n the degree to which an experimentally-determined definition matches the theoretical definition. of the TAS scale. Blenner further noted that this study confirmed Zuckerman's view that accessibility to sensation-seeking outlets may determine activities pursued. She noted that her study's thrill seekers were all middle class and lived in an area where thrill-seeking sport activities abounded. She concluded that "environmental accessibility, coupled with socioeconomic class, may play significant roles in the channeling of sensation seeking" (1993, p. 462). Related Issues Other related literature has characterized sensation seeking using various terms such as thrill seeking, arousal/ stimulation seeking, or novelty seeking/ experiencing. These are other key words to use to further review related topics. A study by Kerr (1991) confirmed that those who participate in high-risk sports on a regular basis are arousal seekers. There has been some criticism that the Sensation Seeking Scales may be biased towards those of higher socioeconomic status socioeconomic status, n the position of an individual on a socio-economic scale that measures such factors as education, income, type of occupation, place of residence, and in some populations, ethnicity and religion. . In fact, activities researched such as hang gliding hang gliding Sport of flying in unpowered aircraft that are light enough to be carried by the pilot. Takeoff is usually achieved by launching into the air from a cliff or hill. Hang gliders were developed by the pioneers of practical flight. , sky diving sky diving, sport of descending partly by parachute from an airplane or similar craft. Engaged in for both recreational and competitive purposes, sky diving involves three phases of activity: the free fall, the descent with open parachute, and the landing. , or skiing are expensive sports and irrelevant to many with lower incomes and lack of access. Indeed, Shinew, Floyd, McGuire, and Noe (1996) determined that African-American males with higher incomes were more apt to report such risk-skill activities than were African-American males of a lower income level. The cross-cultural stability of the psychometric psy·cho·met·rics n. (used with a sing. verb) The branch of psychology that deals with the design, administration, and interpretation of quantitative tests for the measurement of psychological variables such as intelligence, aptitude, and properties of forms IV, V, and VI of the Sensation Seeking Scale has been analyzed (Torki, 1993). Torki's analysis of American versus Kuwaiti men and women revealed some cultural and gender differences. Torki concluded that the socialization socialization /so·cial·iza·tion/ (so?shal-i-za´shun) the process by which society integrates the individual and the individual learns to behave in socially acceptable ways. so·cial·i·za·tion n. experiences of Kuwaiti women meant that activities included in the scales were not deemed suitable for this group. However, the sub-scales of Disinhibition and Thrill and Adventure Seeking for Kuwaiti men resembled those factors for their American counterparts. Researchers continued to test and analyze Zuckerman's model of sensation seeking. In 1991, Freixanet developed a personality profile of participants in high-risk sports that confirmed the characteristics of extraversion extraversion /ex·tra·ver·sion/ (ek?strah-ver´zhun) extroversion. extraversion see extroversion. and thrill and adventure seeking. Robinson (1992) presented a descriptive model of enduring risk-recreation involvement, which included the "need for stimulation." He pointed out the theoretical and empirical commonality com·mon·al·i·ty n. pl. com·mon·al·i·ties 1. a. The possession, along with another or others, of a certain attribute or set of attributes: a political movement's commonality of purpose. between arousal seeking, environmental preference, and sensation seeking. Risk sports provide the opportunities for novel sensations or high levels of risk necessary for individuals with a high need for stimulation. Robinson had previously found sensation seeking to be associated with the high level of sensory input necessary for experienced rock climbers. Finally, in 1994, Chirivella and Martinez analyzed the empirical connections between sensation seeking, motivational orientation, and risk sports. This study confirmed the relationship between experience seeking and level of risk in sports. These authors concluded that participation in high-risk sports may provide a socially acceptable outlet for sensation seekers "without running the real risk involved in the performance of other activities like drug taking or participation in... violent actions" (Chirivella & Martinez, 1994, p.785). Recreation professionals should consider what activities could be offered to satisfy these individuals who have high sensation-seeking needs. While many facilities offer golf, tennis, and lap swimming, these activities are often boring to sensation-seeking individuals. Some suggestions include the conversion of old racquetball racquetball, sport played indoors by two or four players, combining elements of court handball and such racket games as squash racquets. It is played on a standard handball court 40 ft (12.2 m) long, 20 ft (6. courts into indoor rock-climbing walls, the addition of water slides to pool facilities, inline-hockey rinks, bungee-jumping towers, high rope courses, and wave pools for whitewater canoeing and kayaking. Some activities could be set up with little or no alteration to existing facilities, such as an Eskimo roll course for beginning kayakers. This could be as easy as the devotion of a couple of hours of pool time. On-site instruction and skills practice for rock climbing arid kayaking could be combined with outdoor trips to satisfy these sensation-seeking individuals, providing activities such as rappelling, rock climbing, mountain biking mountain biking Sports medicine A sport in which participants use specialized bicycles to navigate rough, steep trails covered with unforgiving rocks Injury risk Concussions, fractures, death. See Extreme sport, Novelty seeking behavior. , and white-water canoeing or kayaking. This review of the literature features both research and programmatic pro·gram·mat·ic adj. 1. Of, relating to, or having a program. 2. Following an overall plan or schedule: a step-by-step, programmatic approach to problem solving. 3. implications. Continued investigation into the relationship of sensation-seeking and high-risk recreation may yield valuable insight into the relationship of these factors and other high-risk activities such as drug and alcohol abuse, vandalism, and delinquency. Further investigation into relationships between these factors and age, socioeconomic status, gender, and cultural and ethnic differences is warranted. References Blenner, J.L. (1993). Visual evoked potential visual evoked potential n. The measurement that results from the recordings of an electroencephalogram from the occipital area of the scalp as the result of retinal stimulation by a light flashing at quarter-second intervals, as given by a computer stimulus intensity modulation In optical communications, intensity modulation (IM) is a form of modulation in which the optical power output of a source is varied in accordance with some characteristic of the modulating signal. and sensation seeking in thrill seekers. Journal of Personality and Individual Differences, 14(3), 455-463. Bouter, L.M., Knipschild, P.G., Feij, J.A., & Volovics, A. (1988). Sensation seeking and injury risk in downhill skiing. Journal of Personality and Individual Differences, 9(3), 667-673. Breivik, G. (1996). Personality, sensation seeking and risk taking among Everest climbers. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 27, 308-320. Calhoon, L.L. (1988). Explorations into the biochemistry of sensation seeking. Journal of Personality and Individual Differences, 9(6), 941-949. Campbell, J.B., Tyrrell, D.J. & Zingaro, M. (1993) Sensation seeking among whitewater canoe and kayak paddlers. Journal of Personality and Individual Differences, 14(3), 489-491. Chirivella, E.C. & Martinez, M. (1994). The sensation of risk and motivational tendencies in sports: An empirical study. Journal of Personality and Individual Differences, 16(5), 777-786. Cronin, C. (1991). Sensation seeking among mountain climbers. Journal of Personality and Individual Differences, 12(6), 653-654. Rainey, D.W., Amunategui, E, Agocs, H., & Larick, J. (1992). Journal of Sport Behavior, 15(4), 307-317. Rossi, B. & Cereatti, L. (1993). The sensation seeking in mountain athletes as assessed by Zuckerman's Sensation Seeklng Scale. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 24, 417-431. Schuett, M. A. (1993). Refining measures of adventure recreation involvement. Leisure Sciences, 15, 205-216. Straub, W.F. (1982). Sensation seeking among high and low-risk male athletes. Journal of Sport Psychology, 4, 246-253. Wagner, A.M. & Houlihan, D. (1994). Sensation seeking trait anxiety in hang-glider pilots and golfers. Journal of Personality and Individual Differences, 16(6), 975-977. Zuckerman, M. (1983). Sensation seeking and Sports. Journal of Personality and Individual Differences, 4, 285-293. RELATED ARTICLE: Research Into Action: Meeting the Challenges of High-Risk Recreation Introduction High-risk recreational activities are growing in popularity. The trait of sensation seeking is a possible explanation for this behavior. Two decades of research on sensation-seeking behaviors (a trait of physical and social risk taking and intolerance of boredom) are reported on in this month's "Research Update." Impact of this Research Some of the characteristics common to sensation seekers are drug and alcohol consumption, cigarette smoking, reported high-risk sexual behaviors, preference for stimulating foods and perceptual complexity, and attraction to physically risky sports. Leisure research has confirmed a link between the possession of the sensation-seeking trait and participation in such high-risk activities as rock climbing, hang-gliding, skiing, canoeing, kayaking, skydiving skydiving Sport of jumping from an airplane at a moderate altitude (e.g., 6,000 ft [1,800 m]) and executing various body maneuvers before pulling the rip cord of a parachute. Competitive events include jumping for style, landing with accuracy, and performing in teams (e.g. , motorcycle racing motorcycle racing Sport of running motorcycles on tracks, closed circuits, or natural terrain. The main types are (1) road racing, conducted on a course made up wholly or partly of public roads; (2) trials, conducted both on and off the highway; (3) speedway racing, , and scuba diving scuba diving Swimming done underwater with a self-contained underwater-breathing apparatus (scuba), as opposed to skin diving, which requires only a snorkel, goggles, and flippers. Scuba gear was invented by Jacques-Yves Cousteau and Émile Gagnan in 1943. . Further, sensation seeking has been found by research to be a biased trait as it is associated with the opportunity to engage in high-risk recreation. That is, recreational thrill seekers are typically middle class and reside in geographic areas where the potential to participated in these activities abounds. There are also cultural and gender differences. Finally, certain research concludes that participation in high-risk recreational activities may provide a socially acceptable outlet for sensational seekers without running the risk of participation in personally or socially harmful behaviors. How to Use this Research Park and recreation agencies should go beyond the typical provisions of golf, tennis, and lap swimming, and offer physical activities for participants with high sensation-seeking needs. Here are some ideas: * Convert old racquetball courts into indoor rock-climbing walls. * Add water slides to swimming-pool facilities. * Convert outdoor jogging tracks into inline skating tracks. * Include bungee-jumping towers, high rope courses, and wave pools for white-water canoeing and kayaking in park designs. * Offers classes on how to do an Eskimo practice for rock climbing, kayaking, and other sports. * Combine risk sports with outdoor trips as an additional option for participants. For More Information Zuckerman, M. 1983. Sensation seeking and sports. Journal of Personality and Individual Differences, 4, 285-93. Complete reference list may be obtained from Marjorie J. Malkin, Ed.D., CTRS CTRS Centers (street suffix) CTRS Containers CTRS Certified Therapeutic Recreation Specialist CTRS Conventional Terrestrial Reference System CTRS Center for Technology Risk Studies (University of Maryland) at Department of Health Education and Recreation, Southern Illinois University Southern Illinois University, main campus at Carbondale; state supported; coeducational; est. 1869, opened 1874 as a normal school, renamed 1947. It has a center for archaeological investigation and a fisheries research laboratory. There is also a campus at Edwardsville. , Carbondale, IL 62901-4632; E-mail: mmalkin@siu.edu Marjorie J. Malkin, Ed.D., CTRS is an associate professor of therapeutic recreation at Southern Illinois University-Carbondale. Erik Rabinowitz, M.S. is currently a doctoral student in educational psychology at SIU-Carbondale. Research Update is edited by Dr. Irma O'Dell of Southern Illinois University at Carbondale |
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