Seniors set sights on staying competitive: recreation and park professionals need to notice a different generation taking the court--the older adult.

Recreation and park professionals, in contrast with a general public that is less knowledgeable, are coming to grips with a trend that is accelerating--older athletes who seek competitive challenges on the courts and fields in our communities. The demographic facts of our aging population are known; the aging of the baby boom cohort will double the older population to 70 million by 2030 (Older Americans 2000). As society is becoming racially and ethnically diverse, so too will the older population, with non-whites representing 36 percent of those 65+ by 2050. Women continue to outlive men (constituting 60 percent of the senior population) and the 85+ group is the fastest growing segment, due to reach 5 percent of total population by 2050 (Older Americans 2000).

Less well-known are the participation rates of older athletes who practice and compete on a regular basis. Opportunities to seek sporting challenges are becoming more abundant for athletes of middle-age or beyond through formal organizations such as the National Senior Games Association (NSGA) or World Masters Athletics, or by way of leagues and tournaments managed at the local government level. Definitions of "older athlete" and of "competition" call vary; for example, masters events typically use an age minimum of 40 for men and 35 for women, while senior events often start at 50. Competition here means playing against an opponent in an individual or team sport and also includes any type of self-challenge such as bettering one's time or improving performance.

As to the extent of participation, NSGA estimates that 250,000 older adults are active at some level of training. In fact, the 2003 national senior summer games in Hampton Roads, Va., registered nearly 11,000 competitors (National Senior Games Association, 200:3). The largest international multi-sport competition ever held was the 1994 World Masters competitions in Brisbane, Australia, with 24,000 athletes (World Association of Veteran Athletes, 2003). Participation rates are often higher for the 65+ group compared to those 55-64 due to work commitments for the latter group, and that days participated per year are higher for the older" group as well (U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 2002).

As might be expected, popular sports for athletes 65 and over include swimming (3.8 million), golf (3.1 million) and bowling (2.1 million) (Statistical Abstract, 2002). Even less popular sports record numbers of older enthusiasts--244,000 basketball players, 136,000 softball players, and 74,000 involved in martial arts (Statistical Abstract, 2002). Rates in many sports are growing and may not include informal competitions such as tennis matches among friends. Thus, competition is on a scale greater than many would assume.

Theoretical Perspectives

Stebbins' (1992) exploration of amateur's, professionals and serious leisure provides a useful framework for studying sport in later life. Based on research from eight different fields, he categorized successive levels of involvement from dabblers (occasional and fun) to novices (slightly more committed but still aimed at fun) to participants (willing to practice and learn and are concerned with performance). Those highest in commitment were "devotees" where seriousness of effort and concern of performance were characteristic. Amateurs who undertook "serious leisure" had stayed with the activity over a long period and had progressed from novice to higher levels of accomplishment and ability. They felt a part of a sub-culture connected to their endeavor and identified strongly with it.

The above patterns and categorizations have been supported by a number of researchers concerned with late life sport. Smith and Stourandt (1997) found older adult competitors, those who trained and competed regularly, to possess certain qualities when compared to seniors who just exercised or did no activity at all. Competitors had stayed with their sport throughout adulthood, trained about four days a week and were more likely to note the health and physical benefits of sporting participation. Their profile indicated a serious approach to activity. This dedication may even bring conflict with expectations of friends and society favoring less-serious approaches to sport for those past the age of 50, according to O'Brien-Cousins and Burgess (1992). They noted that some mature athletes desire a test of physical limits and there is a need for trainers/ coaches competent in areas of the physiology of aging.

Langley and Knight (1999) used continuity theory to describe in case-study fashion the sporting life of Art Kahn (pseudonym). Having reached his late '60s as a serious tennis player, athletics and competition had been central to major life events like jobs, friendships and even in meeting his wife. Continuity was demonstrated through internal consistency, which led Kahn to develop a strong self concept connected to sport, and external consistency made up of friendships and social ties linked to athletics. His passion for tennis and competition remained strong even though skills had been lost and adaptations made to his game. Hahn's profile clearly fits the label of "devotee" as described by Stebbins (1992).

Performance

Since biologic/physiologic modifications such as slowed reaction time, decreased maximum heart rate, and changes in the ratio of muscle to fat accompany the aging process, researchers have probed the issue of what skills or events are likely to be affected, and if serious training may counter expected age-related declines.

As records for masters' competitions have been accurately kept and in existence for years, events in track and field have been scrutinized. In a longitudinal design, which assessed elite distance runners ages 20-49, and then followed up 22 years later, Trappe, Costill, Vukovich, Jones, & Melham (1996) identified four groups ranging in level of training and competitive involvement.

Those highest in training and competition after 22 years had been affected the least in terms of a number of physiological measures such as heart rate and ventilation efficiency. The oldest group (mean age of 68 at second assessment), even though they had been active for more than 20 years, showed declines in most areas and had only two-thirds the aerobic capacity of the youngest competitive group.

Fung and Ha (1994) studied the effect of aging on track performance for masters' athletes and found negligible declines in most events for men and women (five-year age spans) until the age of 60 or 65 where drops accelerated. Events most impacted were the 400-meter run, long jump, javelin and discus. It was hypothesized that the combination of anaerobic and aerobic efficiency needed for the 400-meter and the explosive muscle power required for the other above events were related to restrictions brought on by the aging process.

Similarly, decline in performance after the age of 60 was documented by a group of researchers (Starkes, Weir, Singh, Hodges, & Kerr, 1999) who reviewed track events ranging from the 200-meter to 5,000 meters. The distance most affected by age was the 800-meter. While some athletes reported training about seven hours a week, this figure was still less training time than when they were in peak years. The researchers concluded not only are age-related changes responsible for performance declines, but other factors such as level of training and time lost to injury must be considered.

Older athletes make adaptations. Over and Thomas (1995) studied younger (mean age=33) and older (mean age-62) golfers of comparable ability. While the younger group was more powerful with longer drives, both were identical in greens hit and putts per round. Tire strength of youth was compensated for in later life by controlling emotions and using less risky shotmaking.

Conclusion

At varying levels of intensity and commitment, more older athletes are taking advantage of sporting opportunities offered through formal organizations or sponsored by park and recreation agencies. The demographics of aging ensures that this trend will continue for at least 50 years. From less serious to committed participants, older athletes match training and competitive level with the appropriate degree of challenge. Many see no need to relinquish competitive desires because of a certain chronological age. Analyses of performance indicate that while age-related decline is to be expected, in many skills or events this will not be seen until the sixth decade. Further, adaptation is a technique employed by aging athletes to allow for a sustained career in the sport of choice.

RESEARCH INTO ACTION: PLANNING FOR OLDER ATHLETES

Administrators of park and recreation departments should begin to plan for the active participation of mature athletes who enjoy competing. Roles recreation professionals should play can range from direct management where the planning, organizing and conducting tournaments and leagues is at the local level; to sponsoring or co-sponsoring with established organizations such as National Senior Games or state-level senior competitions; to promotion and public relations work where the professional spreads the word and creates interest for events occurring in the area. The following are considerations based on the above review.

* A There may be more active older athletes than expected--search them out. Some may already be in existing adult leagues (volleyball, softball, etc.), while others may be harder to identify such as casual tennis players or runners who might be interested in mini-marathons or track competitions.

* Senior sport enthusiasts come in varying levels of competitiveness and training; some are less-serious and seek fun, others are quite serious and train regularly. Their motives will differ and planning may need to incorporate the occasional participant as well as the involved purist.

* Social aspects and the camaraderie inherent are typically very important to athletes. Many look forward to seeing friends at gatherings. Allow for such time. A banquet or social hour may accomplish the objective here.

* Trainers or coaches are needed to work with senior athletes (O'Brien-Cousins & Burgess, 1992). Perhaps clinics could be organized where training strategies are reviewed or injury prevention discussed.

* The issue of older athletes could be addressed by way of a department review of all offerings and include input from programmers, athletic specialists and those working exclusively with seniors (center staff or exercise specialists). Would leagues need a senior division and what would the age minimum be? Are annual tournaments the best way to go? Such questions could be explored.

* Do not postpone such planning because little experience exists. Help is available. The national organizations cited are excellent resources, as are the seniors within local communities. Begin at a level that offers comfort--a special event or a tournament--and expand to full leagues of older athletes or senior games lasting days as competence grows.

References

Fung, L. & Ha, A. (1994) Changes in track and field performance with chronological aging International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 38(2), 171-180.

Langley, D.J. & Knight, S.M (1999) Continuity in sport participation as an adaptive strategy in the aging process: A lifespan narrative Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, (7), 32-54

National Senior Games Association (2003), Retrieved from www.nsga.com on 7/7/2003.

O'Brien-Cousins, S. & Burgess, A. (1992) Perspectives on older adults in physical activity and sports. Educational Gerontology, (18), 461-481.

Older Americans 2000: Key indicators of well-being. Federal Interagency Forum on Aging-Related Statistics Retrieved from www.agingstats.gov/chartbook2000/ population.html on 5/26/2004.

Over, R & Thomas, P (1995). Age and skilled psychomotor performance: A comparison of younger and older golfers. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 41(1), 1-12.

Smith, C.L. & Stourandt, M. (1997). Physical activity participation in older adults: A comparison of competitors, noncompetitors, and nonexercisers. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, (5), 98-110

Starkes, J.L., Weir, P.J., Singh, P., Hodges, N.J. & Kerr T. (1999). Aging and retention of sport expertise. International Journal of Sport Psychology, (30), 283-301.

Stebbins, R.A. (1992). Amateurs, professionals, and serious leisure. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press.

Trappe, S., Costill, D., Vukovich, M., Jones, J. & Melham, T. (1996). Aging among elite distance runners--a 22-year longitudinal study. Journal of Applied Physiology, 80(1), 285-290.

U.S. Census Bureau. Statistical Abstract of the United States 2002 (2002). Washington, D.C.: U S Government Printing Office.

Vertinsky, P (2000). Externally wounded women? Feminist perspectives on physical activity and aging or a woman's p(l)ace in the marathon of life. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, (8), 386-406.

World Association of Veteran Athletics. (2003) Retrieved from www wava.org on 7/21/2003

Ted Tedrick is a professor in the School of Tourism and Hospitality Management at Temple University with scholarly interests in the aging of our population connected to leisure and retirement. He is a former board member of NRPA's Leisure and Aging Section, and has been on the Mayor's Commission on Services to the Aging in Philadelphia for more than 15 years. He is co-author with McGuire & Boyd of the book Leisure & Aging: Ulyssean Living in Later Life, now in its third edition.