Self-advocacy for students with disabilities.

Abstract

This article will address specific self-advocacy curricula and strategies that can be effectively taught to students at the secondary level in special education. Definitions and the need for self-advocacy training for secondary students with disabilities will be discussed. In addition, research-based effective programs are reviewed and presented to assist secondary students in becoming better self-advocates.

Introduction

Self-advocacy has become an integral part of many special education programs. Self-advocacy, through the implementation of self-determination, self-awareness, and IEP involvement is an essential components of the educational experience for secondary students in special education. A growing body of literature has been published on self-advocacy in order to make students successful in developing the vital self-advocacy skills that are needed for success in the secondary classroom (Ellis, Deshler, Lenz, Schumaker, & Clark, 1991; Lancaster, Schumaker, & Deshler, 2002; Martin & Marshall, 1995; Rabideau & Pierson, 2001; Wehmeyer, Palmer, Agran, Mithaug, & Martin, 2000; Zhang, 2001). The terminal goal for self-advocacy is to enable both general and special education students to have the opportunity for a smoother transition into post-secondary education and into the work force. This article will explore self-advocacy strategies and curriculum in an effort to empower students with and without disabilities in academic and vocational settings.

Self-advocacy and self-determination are terms that are frequently interchanged within the literature. The power to make choices that reflect personal preferences, interests, and values, to take the degree of control over one's life that is desired, and the liberty to develop a vision for the future are all aspects of self-advocacy and self-determination (Abery, 1994). Knight and Davis (1987) defined self-advocacy as the power to choose and pursue one's own interest and desires to direct one's own destiny. Simply stated, an advocate is a person who takes up the cause of another person for the good of that person. Therefore, effective self-advocates will take on their own cause for the good of themselves. Students with disabilities must be given the skills to be strong self-advocates to be successful in secondary classrooms.

Federal legislation warrants the need for self-advocacy programs for people with disabilities. The Rehabilitation Act of 1997 states that:

   Disability is a natural part of the human experience and in no way
   diminishes the rights of individuals to live independently, enjoy
   self-determination, make choices, contribute to society, pursue
   meaningful careers and enjoy full inclusion and integration into the
   economic, political, social, cultural, and educational mainstream of
   American society (See. 1.2(a)(3)).

This federal legislation lays the foundation for the rights of individuals with disabilities on which educational professionals can build. The most effective way of enhancing these rights is to provide training in the area of self-advocacy to help all people fulfill their potential as individuals.

The need for self-advocacy training for students with disabilities was clearly stated by Ellis et al. (1991). This study supported the tact that students with high incidence disabilities (e.g. learning disabilities, emotional/behavioral disorders) did not gradually develop self-determination or self-advocacy skills as do secondary students without disabilities. Rather, they need explicit training in self-advocacy which would include instruction on the generalization of skills to natural settings, an explanation of the potential value of specific skills, opportunities to observe as well as practice skills, and immediate feedback on the development of self-advocacy.

Self-Advocacy Programs

Project "LEAD" is one example of an educational program that was developed in order to allow students to become more self-aware academically and specifically about their own disability. This program empowers students to make individual decisions that give them a sense of leadership. Students are allowed to self-regulate assignments. "Although it may be challenging for educators to allow students to have control over the curriculum, student-directed work on self awareness, leadership, and self-advocacy will ultimately be more effective in promoting those skills than will teachers providing instruction in what they presume to be students' needs" (Pocock, Lambros, Karvonen, Test, Algozzine, Wood, & Martin, 2002, p. 216). By giving students the ability to choose for themselves, they will develop certain skills that will empower them throughout their lives. Research by Pocock et al. (2002) demonstrates the effectiveness of this program for students with varying types of disabilities.

The "Next S.T.E.P." curriculum (Zhang, 2001) has been designed to raise self-advocacy among students who are transitioning between junior high and high school or between high school and college. The educational materials in this unit are designed to maximize the self-awareness of students in both general and special education. Curriculum is modified in order to meet the needs of students with disabilities. Specifically, the goal of the "Next S.T.E.P." curriculum focuses on the following question, "Did the self-determined instruction affect the student to the extent that the student actually employed the self-determination skills learned? A total of 19 lessons teach students skills in the areas of self-evaluation, choosing goals and activities, taking charge of their personal transition planning, following through on choices, and keeping track of their progress. Overall, current research demonstrates that students taught this curriculum show a great amount of improvement in self-awareness (Zhang, 2001). "Instructional activities in the Next S.T.E.P. curriculum can improve students' general abilities in serf-evaluation, goal setting and achievement, and planning for the future" (Zhang, 2001 p. 128).

Interactive Hypermedia Program has been developed and validated by Lancaster, Schumaker, and Deschler (2002). It includes student-led individualized education plan (IEP) conferences which have proven to be beneficial for students in special education. This interactive technology program was as effective in teaching a complex self-advocacy strategy to students with disabilities as live instruction involving approximately three hours of teacher time per student (Lancaster et al., 2002). Another self-advocacy program, the Self-Determined Learning Model of Instruction (Wehmeyer, Palmer, Agran, Mithaug, & Martin, 2000), focuses on self-determined people who are the causal agents in their lives. Self-determined people are actors in their lives instead of being acted upon and they make things happen in their lives (Wehmeyer et al., 2000). This model is an adaptation of a previous model called the Adaptability Instruction Model which did not include the self-determination component. Students are presented with a three phase instructional process. Each phase includes problems that the student must solve by posing and answering a series of four questions that assist them in learning, modifying goals, and reaching self-selected goals. The Self-Advocacy Handbook (Rabideau & Pierson, 2001) is another program to improve self-advocacy for secondary students. Students acquire a solid foundation for self-advocacy by being able to practice communicating and role playing about the following issues: (1) reason for being in special education, (2) their disability and its implications, (3) individual learning profile (strengths and weaknesses), (4) needed accommodations and modifications, and (5) rights and responsibilities as related to special education or federal law (Rabideau & Pierson, 2001).

Strategies for Teaching Self-Advocacy

Much of the literature on self-advocacy is centered on specific strategies to instruct students on the implementation of self-determination and self-awareness skills. One strategy for teaching students self-determination is to provide students with contracts. "Self-determination contracts provide opportunities for students to learn to regulate their behaviors to adjust to changing demands" (Martin, Mithhaug, Cox Peterson, & Et, 2003, p.433). The use of self-determination contracts encompasses several strategies that allow for students to have control over their own academic progress and choices in assignments. Contracts allow the individual to continuously view his or her own progress. In addition, modeling is powerful way for students to learn self-determination skills. Mentorship programs can be set up to demonstrate specific self-advocacy skills by observing adult role models (Bandura, 1986). Peer role modeling can also be encouraged in cooperative groups. Students have excellent opportunities to learn from peers when groups are formed. Cooperative learning has been well documented in the literature (Johnson & Johnson, 1986; Johnson, Johnson, Holubec, & Roy, 1984).

Another strategy that has been applied to students with disabilities is increased leadership at Individualized Education Plan (IEP) meetings. Students are able to learn the IEP process in greater depth and possibly become better self advocates as they become more aware. "Involving special education students in their individualized education programs is important to ensure the student gets the most from the learning experience" (Zickel & Arnold, 2001, p.71). By including students in the IEP process, they are more likely to understand what needs to be accomplished and they will be more likely to engage in their education in greater depth. The involvement of students at IEP meetings is a prominent component of self-advocacy. Opportunities for choice is an additional strategy to help students acquire skills and knowledge related to self-determination. Students are able to learn in real life situations and experience natural consequences based on the choices they make. If opportunities for choice are not given to students, they may not see a reason to be strong self-advocates and use their current self-determination skills (Field, 1996).

Finally, behavioral strategies have also been proven to have a significant impact on the self-determination skill development of secondary school students (Koestner, Ryan, Bernieri, & Holt, 1984; Field, 1996). "Reinforcement techniques that foster motivation, self-esteem, and creativity, and that encourage internal, rather than external, locus of control are recommended to promote self-determination" (Field, 1996). For example, positive reinforcement should be used to encourage appropriate behaviors rather than focusing on negative behaviors by using punishment.

Conclusion

The curricular programs and strategies for self-advocacy presented above are research-based and have been validated in secondary settings with students with disabilities. The intent of this manuscript is to assist educators in determining which self-advocacy programs may be most effective for secondary students with disabilities in their classrooms.

Overall, the positive effects achieved by the use of self-advocacy curriculum and strategies are numerous. Each self-advocacy curriculum or strategy presented will improve self-determination skills among secondary students with disabilities. Different students may be working on improving a variety of skills. The curriculum and strategies presented in this manuscript will enable educators to succinctly review several research-based programs and determine which may be most amenable to specific classrooms. "Most researchers, administrators, parents, and teachers involved with adolescents with disabilities agree that teaching students to become self determined and to take greater control over their lives are key elements for a successful transition from school to adult life" (Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1998, p.76). It is vital to understand that "students with self-determination have been shown to be comparatively more successful in adult roles upon exiting from their school programs than students who lack self-determination" (Malian and Nevin, 2002, p.74). Self-advocacy is not just a trend, but a proven tool to enable special education students to succeed.

Therefore, as educators we must encourage students who lack self-determination skills to become more self-aware and, therefore, better self-advocates. The strategies and programs presented will assist secondary students with disabilities to develop better self-advocacy skills.

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Melinda R. Pierson, California State University, Fullerton

Francisco Cortez, Francis E. Willard Intermediate School, Santa Ana, California

Amber M. Shea, Citrus Hills Intermediate School, Corona, California

Pierson, Ph.D., is an Associate Professor in the Department of Special Education. Cortez and Shea are both secondary special education teachers and graduate students at Cal State Fullerton.