Script creation for the design of lesson plans.

The audio-visual approach used in pedagogy, closely associated with a lock-step view of teaching in the seventies, has undergone a revolution in recent years. By way of examining how teachers can script a body of pedagogic sequences, or lessons, the different phases of the lesson planning process and how a more innovative audio-visual approach can facilitate this process are examined. First, different learning styles as perceived by learners themselves are outlined. Second, an overview of the different pedagogic approaches available to teachers is proposed. Third, the different phases of creating a lesson script are described based on a scenistic approach. Finally, two types of lesson scripts are outlined to demonstrate how one can take into account apparently contradictory teaching methods.

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One of the challenges of teaching is to ensure the learning content is not only meaningful to learners, but also has the desired educational impact on the quality of their learning. All too often, however, carefully crafted teaching/learning materials tend to be presented in such a way that they have limited impact on learners. One explanation for this, is that many teachers feel unable to convert their expert knowledge to the needs of different learners because they do not have the appropriate preparation in integrating teaching tools into their lesson plans.

This article describes a method to guide the designing of learning environments, based on the work of an interdisciplinary team of researchers and teachers at the Universite de Valenciennes (France). The first part of the article discusses research conducted at the University based on a variation of Mumford and Honey's (1992) Learning Styles Questionnaire to establish the perceived learning styles of 179 adult learners (Study 1). This is followed by giving the results of a study into learners' self-observation of their dominant learning style (Style 2). The second part of the article outlines the historical legacy of different pedagogic models through six educational paradigms, cross-referenced to nine operational aspects of teaching. To put this analysis in perspective, a study was conducted into the expressed learning modes of 575 adults learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL) (Study 3).This was followed by a comparison of two dominant educational schools of thought, drawn from the work of Piaget (1975 ) and Vygotsky (1934/1962). The third part of the article explains step by step how to draw up a scripted lesson through a series of interconnected pedagogic fragments. To do this key concepts such as: lesson, document, hyperdocument, lesson script, diagese, script, scenation, scenic, and setting up the situation are defined. This process is called the scenistic approach to lesson planning. Finally, the article proposes different personalized learning tracks based on two broad types of lesson scripts with their respective advantages and disadvantages in the classroom.

FOUR BASIC LEARNING STYLES

There is consensus about the idea that a lesson based essentially on the apparent convenience or fascination for teaching tools is doomed to failure. From an educational point of view, teaching tools are not neutral, if nothing else they depend on the teacher's perceptions of learning styles and what s/he expects of learners in terms of the tools' capabilities. In this light, Mumford and Honey's (1992) questionnaire of styles (Reflector, Theorizer, Pragmatic, and Activist, see Table 1) can help understand what may be going on in the learning process. The advantage of using Mumford and Honey's (1992) questionnaire is its widespread use and cross-curricula application. In practical terms, a dominant learning style represents the likely starting point of how an individual marshals his/her resources. If this initial approach should fail, the learner might then turn to other learning modes.

To put Mumford and Honey's (1992) questionnaire into the context of continuing education, a study of 179 learners (Study 1) of EFL (September October 2000) filled in a close-ended questionnaire at the Universite de Valenciennes to establish a four-facetted profile of learners, with each one of the four facets representing a maximum score of 100% each. In this context, of the learners questioned: 70.8% describe themselves as Reflective; 67.2% see themselves as Theorizers; 66.1 % consider themselves as Pragmatic; and 58% perceive themselves as being Activist. In short, more than two thirds of the French adult learners asked for a pedagogic structure that allows them time to carefully weigh the different sides of the question (Reflective), followed by their need to adopt the Theoriser (questioning) and Pragmatic ("get the instructions-then-do it on your own") learning modes (Table 1). After having filled in the initial questionnaire, it was personally explained to 42 adult EFL learners (TOEIC average score of ab out 405 points) what each of the four learning styles were, then they were asked to explicitly identify which particular style best described their approach (Study 2). The direct self report of perceived dominant learning style showed that: 40.5% of learners described themselves as Reflective; 33.5% of learners saw themselves as Pragmatic; 19% of learners saw themselves as Theorizes; and 7% of learners saw themselves as Activist. This study contrasts sharply to the results of the more indirect survey of perceived learning styles of their co-learners (Study 1). The impact of a directive (jacobine) and "rationalist" French culture on adult learners' perceived learning style could be an important factor in explaining the apparent gap between indirect (Study 1) and the more direct self-reports (Study 2).

Given that self-observation reflects learners' image of themselves and that of the educational process, teachers in (French) adult education need to take into account the needs of Reflective learners who tend to focus on, for example, gathering (consuming) information, rather than creating (producing) information (contrary to the Pragmatist and Activist modes). Second, how can the planning of lessons cater for other types of learning styles, notably that of Theorizers and Pragmatists. Finally, when compared to the results of the 179 learners polled (Study 1) a significant Given First, given that self-observation reflects learners' image of themselves and that of the educational process, teachers in (French) adult education need to take into account the needs of Reflective learners who tend to focus on, for example, gathering (consuming) information, rather than creating (producing) information (contrary to the Pragmatist and Activist modes). Second, how can the planning of lessons cater to other types of lear ning styles, notable that of Theorizers and Pragmatists. Finally when compared to the results of the 179 learners polled (Study I) a significant number of learners appeared not to be aware of their own probable "learning style" when directly questioned about the subject (Study 2). Failing to understand one's learning style, may explain, in part, some of learners' difficulties in attaining their learning objectives due to not being able to assimilate the data in an "appropriate" way in terms of their cognitive processes. How can they be made aware of their likely learning style?

SIX EDUCATIONAL PARADIGMS

For teaching to be effective as an act of mediation between what learners know and what they want to know, it is useful to have an overview of the achievements of previous generations of pedagogic style that inevitably influence current teaching practice. From the adult learner's point of view, this approach could explain, in part, their expectations and needs when (unconsciously) referring back to the educational experiences of their youth. For teachers, highlighting this legacy may bring out ideological self-interest, rarely made explicit, forming part of what Thomas Kuhn (1962/1983) called a "paradigm" or unquestioned theory or set of beliefs within a given scientific community.

Based on the initial work of Puren (2000), it is possible to expand his initial analysis into a broader nine-facetted table (Table 2) to present a mosaic (a series of non-related elements linked more for historical reasons rather than for any intrinsic causes) of various features of the teaching and learning approaches of the last few decades.

To put this analysis of educational paradigms into the classroom context, a one-year study (September 1999 -- October 2000) of the sensorial modes of 575 adult EEL learners, at the University (Study 3), revealed that of those who filled in the questionnaire: 67.3% felt they were teacher-dependant; 60.2% saw themselves as needing to be physically active (Kinaesthetic); and 60.3% said they were able to learn by listening (Aural). It seems then that more than two thirds of adult learners expect explicit guidance from the teacher and 60 % of the learners want to be given an opportunity to be physically active and to learn by listening. In other words, even if being physically active and listening to what the expert says are important to learners, they expect to have the guiding hand of the teacher present even more. Given this need for pedagogic guidance, the work of Grangeat (1998, p.183) allowed us to look at how two dominant educational approaches, inspired by the works of Jean Piaget (1975) and Lev Vygotsky ( 1934/1962) respectively, tackle the issues of how people acquire knowledge in terms of external teaching agents (Table 3).

THE CONCEPT OF SCRIPT CREATION APPLIED TO THE DESIGN OF A LESSON

It is not sufficient, however, just to know what information content is suited for learners. It is equally necessary to know how to present this information in an "appropriate" way. To do this the preparation of information content, for example by way of a lesson plan, involves selecting and organizing data, in other words defining a planned structure consisting of subsections, able to be broken down to its most basic level. The term "document" designates this organized structure.

Definition. A document is an organized structure of lower level elements of information. A document is thus information content that can be applied to a given medium/tool. Hence, a computer screen, a cassette audio, a book, a piece of canvas, etc. is not in itself a document but only the material base/tool of the document.

Definition. "A hyperdocument is a content of information made up of a nebulosity of fragments, whose sense is constructed by each of the given reading routes" (Balpe, 1990). This definition does not make any reference to a corresponding physical medium. It is linked to the concept of "document" mentioned above, but adds the dimension of the multiplicity of (reading) routes, presupposing the possibility for users to intervene in the distribution of the contents, in particular in the means of selection or in the numerous choices (interactivity).

Definition. A lesson is a hyperdocument with pedagogic or cultural aims. A lesson consists of having access to objects of knowledge available through the various teaching media as well as their technical variants (hyperdocuments, hypermedia, and more traditional tools such as chalkboards, books, etc.). In short, the term "lesson" refers to the structure that controls the organization of the constituent pedagogic sub-elements while being totally independent of the physical object ultimately constructed.

When designing a lesson, it is often useful for the teacher to have a way to make the intended structure of the lesson explicit. This can be done by creating a mental/conceptual model of the lesson. Traditionally, teachers design a lesson plan based on a "document" structured into different interconnecting parts. The lesson plan can then be given to the learner by way of a "summary." With the summary, learners can then look up any section of the document wherever it is on the chosen medium/teaching tool. In this way, a distinction is established between the actual physical putting into practice of the (teaching) content, and the various aids used to look up the different parts of the lesson. Though a sequential style of reading is still the most common, with this technique different types of reading routes now become possible even in the case of a linear approach. For example, widely diffused written culture, that is, the press, has diversified the ways of having access to knowledge in introducing parallel pr ocedures of looking for data. Newspaper and magazine pages present with the body of the main article, clearly visible footnotes, cross-references, sub-titles, condensed margin texts, illustrations, boxes of information, and so forth. In this vein, when one wants to really use the possibilities of sound documents and moving pictures one may need to go even further than the written medium.

In the audiovisual world, the "script" is the working model of creation. The concept of script is complex, and yet has not been the object of much indepth, critical reflection. The numerous specialized guides that do exist on how authors can improve their script writing techniques (Seger, 1998) give the illusion that the notion of script is self-evident and thus does not need any further discussion. Yet, this is far from being the case today when the script can no longer remain at the level of lock-step linearity, inherited from the centuries-old written culture aided and abetted by a traditional audio-vision approach in education, which has remained the dominant model in the minds of many.

In the case of the cinematographic document, the script is a tool that aids the creative process from the initial idea to the continuity of dialogues. The extended script is able to integrate the different functions of interactivity and allows a break with linearity. In this context, the "lesson script" is not a physical model of data to be put on a given medium nor is it a model of interaction with the learner. The script is a way of accompanying the creation of the lesson from the initial idea to its finished state. It serves as a concrete translation of a teacher's mental representation of a given lesson. This type of script can thus evolve dynamically during the creative process. Between defining the lesson content and creating a complete lesson there is, however, a series of intermediary phases. Previous studies (Leleu-Merviel, 1996) have introduced concepts that take into account the evolutive dimension of the script in the progression of the dynamics of the lesson creation process. The first phase, lin ked to the definition of the lesson content, corresponds to the concept of diagese.

Definition. The diagese includes everything that belongs to the imagined/proposed setting of the document as expressed through the lesson content.

Definition. The script refers to a structured content that progresses through a series of events. While the script develops the logic of the different pedagogic events, the scenation organizes these events together as interacting elements. It can be equated as the "route" (or path) that the learner takes within the structure defined by the script. The scenation is associated with the surface structure as opposed to the deep structure of the script. In particular, the impact of the interactivity modes is transformed by a scenation that, though predetermined, develops itself during the interactive session. It is in this sense that a teacher can interrupt the linearity of a prepared lesson to "spontaneously" present a part of the lesson, which should have been dealt with at a later time, in order to instantly and directly respond to a question.

Definition. The scenation (Colin, 1992) implies the organized structure of events and/or states with which the learner actually interacts. It is made up of a body of fragments taken from the script to determine how the physical data is linked to the actual production of the script. When the creation of the script and the scenation's outline has been done, the lesson exists in an "abstract" way. It is, for example, the text of a play, or the musical partition. It is neither the play itself (the theatrical performance), nor the concert (the musical performance). The performance transposes the abstract document into a reality perceivable to the physical senses.

Definition. The scenic, or the concrete presentation, refers to the process that allows the transposition of the text into a concrete reality. It is the result of aesthetic choices, practical or financial constraints, conditions of usage, and so forth. The scenic deals with the choice of the medium for a given fragment taken from the scenation's structure: text, sound, or both together, and so forth. Similarly for the data of the document, the scenic affects the precise translation of fragments extracted from the script, given that one should carefully consider how the learner's interaction with the environment of the document will be translated in concrete, hands-on terms.

Definition. Setting up the situation defines the modes of the concrete facilitative links between the user and the data of the document. In the multimedia world, it is on the level of setting up the situation, and only on this level, that the creation of user functions will be linked for example, to a button, an icon, a joystick, a click, a captor, a data glove, or a virtual reality immersion headset. In this way, we see how setting up the situation deals with the way that concrete means of action allows the user to navigate in an environment presented by the scenic to facilitate the acquisition of knowledge in a given context.

In short, our approach to facilitate the creation of a lesson implies: constructing the diagese linked to the description of the content; constructing the script (architecture) in which the acquisition of knowledge progresses sequence by sequence though a series of organized events; creating the scenation, as a constituted structure of fragments from a script with which a user is potentially placed in a real context of interaction; choosing the scenic, which translates the text into a body of physical data, that the user's senses can perceive; defining the degree of setting up the situation to establish concrete modes of relations between the user and the data of the document. The term "scenistic approach" of lesson planning thus designates using this approach in presenting of teaching content. Its novelty rests in distinguishing five levels of script writing (described above) which, in practice, are far too often misunderstood at the expense of the efficiency of the outcome for the learner.

DEVELOPING PERSONALIZED LEARNING TRACKS

Guided by the various educational paradigms (Table 2) and the insights of Piaget and Vygotsky (Table 3), two broad types of lesson scripts can be proposed. First, there is a lesson script based on optional tasks to ensure that learners who have had access to the same core data can, at various moments, supplement or refresh the input of data according to their personal preferences. This approach is particularly useful when dealing with areas of teaching/learning which are likely to cause difficulties (learning black spots). A practical example, of such a lesson script is that of proposing various pedagogic activities to be done in a pluri-media resource center. Using books, video tapes, audio-tapes, computer programs and network connections, a custom-made "database" can guide learners to appropriate sections of encyclopaedias, prerecorded demonstrations, lesson summaries, exercises, and so forth. The danger with this type of script, however, is that it may reinforce preferences and tastes which may not always facilitate a broadening of the learner's mind.

The second type of lesson script is that based on a tunnel of multimodal activities to get students to explore different ways of appropriating data. To do this, activities are proposed for learners to enter a pedagogic "tunnel" to try out, for example, different learning styles through a series of activities to complete the lesson. This approach implies that learners need to explore different ways of tackling a given subject. In this way learners are likely to do better in some activities, while in others they may need help. Such an approach can prove particularly useful in guided project work (e.g., case studies, simulations, co-operative activities), evaluation activities (e.g., France's innovative DiplOme de Competence en Langue based on a standardised script to validate language abilities1 1) and with innovative subjects that demand a significant change in the habits of learners.

A well-laid out lesson scripts can thus: (a) help those with apparent learning difficulties based on their cognitive and perceptual preferences (accessibility); (b) encourage learners to make choices and/or to explore alternative ways of learning to surpass themselves (self-discovery); (c) orchestrate different teaching/learning resources for example, e-mail, newspaper articles, videos, sound recordings (co-ordination); (d) be adopted based on feedback from learners and acquisition of new resources (updating); and (e) demonstrate how financial investments are being used (accountability).

Table 1

An adaptation of Mumford and Honey's (1992)

Learning Style Questionnaire


Reflectors prefer to gather a        Pragmatics are willing to be shown
maximum of data, or think things     how to do things, but on the
through, before giving their         condition that they can
response. This can include           immediately put into practice what
gathering different opinions from    they have learnt in order to
others, and observing how other      resolve a particular problem. They
people go about fulfilling a given   tend to focus on how to improve
task. This can make them appear      what exists by looking for hidden
hesitant. They like sharing and      possibilities. They come across as
learning with others, but tend to    energetic, confident and keen to
overlook the more practical          take up the challenge of finding
aspects of their insights. The       answers. The tutor's role is to
tutor intervenes mainly to suggest   encourage them to get started with
appropriate resources and how far    the task and to share their
learners need to go in their         insights.
reflection or quest for additional
data.

Theorizers are particularly curious  Activists are keen to get on with
and readily question what they are   the job without waiting to being
told (e.g. What does it mean?, Why   told how things work. They prefer
must it be done in this way?). The   to find things out for themselves
approach is often systematic and     and tend to be impatient and
linear, and invariably starts from   quickly bored by the slower work
first principles in order to         of consolidation and
understand the overall picture.      implementation. They give
They try to be detached and          spontaneous responses and are
skeptical of personal opinions. To   enthusiastic about new
do this they use individual cases    experiences. Left to themselves,
to make a general system of rules.   these learners take the initiative
Diagrams are often used to show      and opt for activities with
the link between different           short-term goals. They can end up
elements. The main danger is that    tackling non-relevant problems in
these learners risk being lost in    terms of the initial objectives
the details of the task. The tutor   set. The tutor's role is to ensure
is often led to helping them find    that learners do not get too
their own reasons for wanting to     inward looking and loose sight of
achieve set goals.                   their objectives.
Table 2

Mosaic of Educational Paradigms

Paradigm                                  1. Reception

Significant learning happens by     direct assimilation of
                                    knowledge transmitted
                                    by the teacher

Guiding model of mediation          teacher-centered



Preferred pedagogic mode            lectures


Dominant pedagogic type of tool     teacher-led tools e.g.
                                    talk & chalk, commenting
                                    on written texts

Dominant sensorial modes            aural (3)


Dominant symbolic perceptual modes  verbal (7) sequential (8)


Learners are primarily              to be attentive to the
expected                            teacher



Preferred learning style            reflective

Paradigm                                 2. Impregnation

Significant learning happens by     intensive exposure to the
                                    source of knowledge


Guiding model of mediation          Individual's needs &
                                    wants


Preferred pedagogic mode            self-discovery, workshop
                                    activities

Dominant pedagogic type of tool     "real-life" tools used in
                                    a personal context


Dominant sensorial modes            visual (4) tactile (5)


Dominant symbolic perceptual modes  verbal, non-verbal (8)
                                    non-sequential (10)

Learners are primarily              to maximize learning
expected                            opportunities



Preferred learning style            activist

Paradigm                                   3. Action

Significant learning happens by     completing pedagogic
                                    tasks


Guiding model of mediation          physically active
                                    learners


Preferred pedagogic mode            "laboratory" work


Dominant pedagogic type of tool     real-life tools adapted
                                    to a pedagogic context


Dominant sensorial modes            aural, kinesthetic (4)


Dominant symbolic perceptual modes  non-verbal, sequential


Learners are primarily              to participate in class
expected



Preferred learning style            pragmatist

Paradigm                                   4. Reaction

Significant learning happens by     reacting to pedagogic
                                    prompts of the teacher/
                                    teaching tool

Guiding model of mediation          linear & highly structure
                                    teaching content


Preferred pedagogic mode            programmed teaching,
                                    e.g. drill work

Dominant pedagogic type of tool     machine-driven "teaching
                                    machines"


Dominant sensorial modes            visual, tactile,
                                    kinesthetic

Dominant symbolic perceptual modes  non-verbal, sequential


Learners are primarily              to react in a set way
expected



Preferred learning style            (reflective)

Paradigm                                5. Construction

Significant learning happens by     building up a personal
                                    system of knowledge


Guiding model of mediation          self-awareness ("learning
                                    how to learn")


Preferred pedagogic mode            self-monitoring
                                    activities

Dominant pedagogic type of tool     learner-driven pedagogic
                                    tools e.g. personal
                                    computer (2)

Dominant sensorial modes            visual, tactile


Dominant symbolic perceptual modes  verbal non-verbal,
                                    sequential

Learners are primarily              to produce verifiable
expected                            statements in terms
                                    of their needs & wants


Preferred learning style            theorizer

Paradigm                                 6. Interaction

Significant learning happens by     meaningful exchanges



Guiding model of mediation          negotiation among
                                    learners & with the
                                    teacher

Preferred pedagogic mode            discussion groups,
                                    collaborative activities

Dominant pedagogic type of tool     network-linked tools
                                    e.g. Internet


Dominant sensorial modes            aural, tactile


Dominant symbolic perceptual modes  verbal, non-verbal,
                                    non-sequential

Learners are primarily              to balance out their
expected                            needs & wants with the
                                    socio-cognitive demands
                                    of the learning task

Preferred learning style            reflective

(1)Wiburg, K.M (1995) An Historical Perspective on Instructional Design:
Is it Time to Exchange Skinner's Teaching Machine for Dewey's Toolbox?
http://www.cscl95.indiana.edu/csc 195/wilburg.html (consulted
28.10.2000)

(2)see: Edgar, R (1995) PC is to Piagel a WWW is to Vygotsky at
http://www.iconceptual.com/ Siggraph.html (28.10.2000)

(3)Definition: Learners favoring the aural mode are specially sensitive
to human values, like human warmth and a convivial environment. They
tend to focus on communication, teamwork and respect for others in the
group (Labour 1998:107). Aural learners represent around 30% of the
population of http://www.demon.co. uk/mindtool/mnemlsty.html (consulted
27.10.2000), this reference is also used concerning visual and
kinesthetic oriented learners (see below).

(4)Definition: In learning by observing, a visually oriented person
focuses on the details, and the applications of what is being observed.
Visual learners make up about 65% of the population (see above). For
McLuhan (1964:291) the visually-dominant mode tends to see all things as
continuous and connect. This is done by nurturing a fixed point of view,
an attitude of detachment & non- involvement, and in separating
functions/stages/tasks in time and space (McLuhan 1964:217, 247, 291)

(5)Definition: Tactile oriented learners need to be in "direct" contact
(e.g. the television, see McLuhan 1964: 233, 290, 292, 295) with
elements of the object of knowledge. Tactility is "the interplay of the
sense, rather than the isolated contact of skin and objects" (McLuhan
1964 273). The related area of haptic technology, has become increa-
singly important in the development of the new technologies of
information and communication (e.g. force feedback applications).

(6)Definition: Kinesthetic oriented learners prefer learning according
to how they perceive physical performance (e.g. paralinguistic
communication involving body language, eye contact, hands and gestures
in a given language- culture) in terms of effort, self- image, efficacy,
etc. Kinesthetic learners make up around 5% of the population (see
above). This mode is not situated in any one particular part of the
body, as those of seeing and hearing, and involves a non-linear
perceptual process.

(7)Definition: The verbal mode implies a system of communication that
consists of statements with a syntax.

(8)Definition: Sequentially implies a process that has a pre-set
beginning, middle, and end.

(9)Definition: The non-verbal mode consists of statements with no
obvious syntax (e.g. images, gestures, tones of voice, use of space,
clothing cues, colors, (taste) and assumes a high level of literacy
Studies show that non-verbal cues are 50% effective, while words
are only 7% effective
http://www.truly.edu/depts/education/teach/communication/nonverbal.htm.
http://mhhe.com/socscience/speech/commcentral/mgnonverbal.html.
(consulted 27.10.2000)

(10)Definition: Non-sequentially has no pre-set order, the person
chooses how to organize the available segments of data
Table 3

Brief Comparison of Some of Piaget's and Vygotsky's Contribution to
Educational Theory

Jean Piaget: self-structuration            Lev Vygotsky: (guided
                                           co-selfstructuration

a) biological view of learning       social view of learning where it
where the individual first needs     is the concepts from others in
to have a certain level of mental    society that stimulate the
development before being able to     individual's internal mental
have meaningful contact with the     development - functionalist view
social context - structuralist view  of learning
of learning

b) discovering things by oneself     stress on social interactions and
and dialoguing with "objects" of    on the ability to get help from
learning                             others

c) skeptical about the efficacy of   mediation is decisive ("If the
(explicit) mediation ("Each time     child makes one step in learning,
one explains something to a child,   he advances two steps in his
one stops him/her from inventing     development.")
it.")

d) role of the specialist is to      role of the specialist is to
provide a rich environment and to    identify when the learner is in a
facilitate cognitive conflicts       Zone of Proximal Development and
that are the driving force of        to help him/her complete a task
mental development                   first by being helped and then by
                                     him/herself

e) especially useful for error       especially useful for gradually
analysis and to plan how to          building up (scaffolding)
overcome a learner's difficulties    challenging teaching/learning
                                     units

(*.) This article was an award-winning paper at SITE, 2001.

Note

(1.) Http://www.education.gouv.fr/fp/dcl.htm (retrieved 11/10/2000)

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