Science-related attitudes and science course selection: A study of high-ability boys and girls.

This study examined science-related attitudes and science course selection of young high-ability students. The sample consisted of 111 high-achieving students between the ages of 9 and 13 who completed the Test of Science-Related Attitudes (TOSRA) and the Course Selection Sheet (CSS). The results revealed significant correlations between specific science-related attitudes and the number of science courses selected. The strongest correlations were between total number of science courses selected and three TOSRA subscales: Enjoyment of Science Lessons, Leisure Interest in Science, and Career Interest in Science (p [is less than] .001). The results of a regression model suggest that science-related attitudes are important predictors of the number of science course selected by girls ([R.sup.2] = .43). For boys, science-related attitudes are not factors related to science course selection.

Promotion of favorable science attitudes is an important aim in science education (Fraser, 1980; Klopfer, 1971; New York State Education Department [NYSED], 1986) particularly because the research findings suggest that positive science-related attitudes are the precursors to interest in science and science course selection (Catsambis, 1995; Simpson & Oliver, 1990; Weinburgh, 1995). Numerous studies document that students begin the study of science with positive attitudes, but the situation rapidly declines by middle school and high school (American Association of University Women [AAUW], 1992; Linn & Hyde, 1989; Oakes, 1990; Weinburgh, 1995; Yager & Penick, 1989).

Much of the literature regarding science-related attitudes focuses on two variables: gender (AAUW, 1992; Ayers & Price, 1975; Brown, Tweeton, & Pacheco, 1975; Fraser, 1980; Linn & Hyde, 1989; Oakes, 1990; Schibeci & McGaw, 1981; Steinkamp, 1984; Steinkamp & Maehr, 1983) and course of instruction (Fraser, 1980; Hasan & Billeh, 1975; Krockover & Malcolm, 1978; Steinkamp, 1984; Steinkamp & Maehr, 1983; Tolman & Barufaldi, 1979).

Despite documentation that gender differences exist in attitudes toward science, the process of how these attitudes affect science outcomes is unclear (AAUW, 1991, 1992; Fraser, 1980; Kelly, 1981; Simpson & Oliver, 1990; Weinburgh, 1995; Wilson, 1983). Further, the research demonstrates that as girls grow older, they are less interested in science than are boys (Catsambis, 1995; Shymansky & Kyle 1988; Simpson & Oliver, 1990; Weinburgh, 1995). The data suggest that females begin to develop negative attitudes toward science and mathematics by middle school (AAUW, 1992; Haertel, Walberg, Junker & Pascarella, 1981; Midgley, Eccles, & Feldlaufer, 1991).

Females, ages 13 and 17, reported that science made them feel "stupid" and failed to instill feelings of "curiosity", "confidence", and "success" (Kahle & Lakes, 1983). This same group of females felt that science careers would be too much work, not much fun, and that science was an area in which they would not experience much success. Fewer females than males expressed an interest in working with scientists to solve problems, in conducting field studies, or in reading articles involving science topics.

However, the research also suggests that high-ability girls and boys are more alike than are high-ability and average girls (Silverman, 1986; Terman & Oden, 1935). Thus, the purpose of this study was to determine whether a gender difference in science-related attitudes exists for high-ability students. Specifically, the study investigated science-related attitudes and their relationship to science course selection of young high-ability boys and girls.

Research Questions

The research questions addressed in this study are:

Is there a positive correlation between number of science courses selected and science-related attitudes for high-ability girls and boys?

Is the cumulative effect of science-related attitudes, predicting the number of science courses selected, significantly different for girls than boys?

Method

Participants

The sample selected for the study consisted of 111 high-ability students, ages 9 through 13. The students attended two elementary schools in a predominantly white, middle class, suburban community. A sample of 55 females and 56 males was selected from 28 classes, grades four through six, who were participants in the school district's gifted pull-out program based on the Renzulli Model (Renzulli, 1977, 1984). In addition to core courses, students selected others from a menu of 30 8- to 16-week mini-courses.

The students were automatically considered qualified for the gifted program if their IQ scores were 130 or higher, and they scored in the 90th percentile or higher in both Total Reading and Total Mathematics on the Stanford Achievement Test (SAT) (The Psychological Corporation, 1989). Students with IQ scores between 121 and 129 were eligible for admission to the program if they were nominated by an adult and their SAT scores were at least in the 90th percentile in both Total Mathematics and Total Reading.

Instruments

Science-related attitudes of high-ability boys and girls were assessed by the Test of Science-Related Attitudes (TOSRA) (Fraser, 1981). The TOSRA is designed to measure seven distinct attitudes of students in middle and high school. The test contains statements about science and uses a five-point scale (strongly disagree to strongly agree).

Each of the seven subscales represents a different facet of attitude toward science as reflected by the items included. For example, Social Implications of Science measures one's attitude regarding the positive and negative effects of science on society (e.g., "Scientific discoveries are doing more harm than good."). Normality of Scientists assesses one's belief about the scientist's lifestyle (e.g., "If you met a scientist, he would probably look like anyone else you might meet."). Attitude toward Scientific Inquiry evaluates one's predilection toward using inquiry in scientific investigations (e.g., "It is better to ask the teacher the answer than to find it out by doing experiments."). Adoption of Scientific Attitudes measures one's willingness to revise opinions based on experimentation and empirical data (e.g., "I am curious about the world in which we live."). Enjoyment of Science Lessons assesses one's level of enjoyment of classroom science lessons (e.g., "Science lessons are fun."). Leisure Interest in Science evaluates one's desire to partake in out-of-school science-related activities (e.g., "I would like to be given a science book or a piece of scientific equipment as a present."). Career Interest in Science measures one's future interest in a career in science (e.g., "When I leave school, I would like to work with people who make discoveries in science.").

Based on the total TOSRA scores for the current sample, reliability coefficient of .96 was calculated using Cronbach alpha. Reliability coefficients were also established for the seven subscales: Social Implications of Science (r = .83), Normality of Scientists (r = .72), Attitude toward Scientific Inquiry (r = .78), Adoption of Scientific Attitudes (r = .61), Enjoyment of Science Lessons (r = .93), Leisure Interest in Science (r = .89), and Career Interest in Science (r = .90).

To determine subjects of interest for high-achieving boys and girls, the Course Selection Sheet (CSS) was administered which required students to choose five courses that they want to study next year. The CSS included 24 possible choices, 12 science (physical science and life science) and 12 non-science courses, and students could include any additional unlisted courses. The CSS was administered after the students completed the TOSRA.

Statistical Analysis

Pearson product-Moment Correlations were used to assess the relationship between science attitudes and number of science course selections by gender. Multiple Regression models were developed to predict the number of science course selections by gender based on science-related attitudes.

Results

Research Question One

Table 1 shows the relationship between science-related attitudes and science courses selected for boys. The only significant correlations were found between total number of courses and Career Interest in Science, as well as number of physical science courses with Enjoyment of Science Lessons and Career Interest in Science. Although the correlation coefficients were statistically significant, the magnitude was low. Each of the three coefficients accounted for no more than 9% of the variance.

Correlation of Science Attitudes and
Course Selection for Boys

                                           Courses
                                Total      Physical       Life

Social Implications             .08         .21         .02
Normality of Scientists         .15         .19         .11
Attitude Toward Inquiry         .13         .18        -.20
Adoption of Attitudes           .02         .09         .12
Enjoyment of Science Lessons    .21         .28(*)      .12
Leisure Interest in Science     .14         .16         .11
Career Interest in Science      .27(*)      .30(*)      .00

Note. (*) p < .05

Table 1

Table 2 shows the relationship between science-related attitudes and science courses selected for girls. With the exception of Social Implications, Normality of Scientists and Attitude to Scientific Inquiry, all science-related attitude scales were significantly correlated with the total number of courses and life science courses selected. The strongest correlations were found between Enjoyment of Science Lessons and life science courses, and Leisure Interest in Science and total number of courses selected. Leisure Interest in Science and Career Interest in Science were strongly correlated with life science courses. In contrast to the magnitude of the coefficients seen for the boys, the statistically significant correlations for the girls were considerably stronger. For Enjoyment of Science Lessons, Leisure Interest in Science, and Career Interest in Science, each coefficient accounted for 20-28% of the variance of total number of courses and life science courses selected. The weaker significant correlations, Adoption of Attitudes with total number of courses and life science courses, explained 8-14% of the variance.

Correlation of Science Attitudes and
Course Selection for Girls

                                          courses
                                Total       Physical      Life

Social Implications             .25          .06         .26
Normality of Scientists         .03          .01         .05
Attitude Toward Inquiry         .23          .07         .21
Adoption of Attitudes           .29(*)       .09         .37(**)
Enjoyment of Science Lessons    .51(**)      .09         .53(***)
Leisure Interest in Science     .53(***)     .22         .46(***)
Career Interest in Science      .49(***)     .23         .45(***)

Note. (*) p < .05; (**) p < .01; (***) p < .001

Table 2

Research Question Two

Separate regression models were constructed for boys and girls to test whether science-related attitudes predict science course selections. The results suggest that, among high-ability young girls, Normality of Scientists, Enjoyment of Science Lessons, and Leisure Interest in Science were all significantly related to the number of science courses selected (Table 3). Collectively, these three variables explained 43% of the variance in the total number of science courses selected by girls. Normality of Scientists emerged as an inverse predictor of course selection by girls. This factor suggests that girls' agreement with the traditional role of scientists negatively affects the predicted number of courses selected for themselves. Based on science-related attitudes, the prediction of number of science courses selected by young boys was not statistically significant.

Summary of Stepwise Regression Analysis for Science Attitude Variables Predicting Number of Science Courses Selected by Girls

Variable                          B          SE B           p

Normality of Scientists         -.10         .04         .004
Enjoyment of Science Lessons     .07         .03         .016
Leisure Interest in Science      .07         .03         .015
(Constant)                      1.36        1.19         .258

Note. [R.sup.2] = .43

Table 3

Discussion

The initial examination of the results suggested that the relationship between science-related attitudes and science course selection was distinctly different for high-ability girls and boys. A closer examination revealed that three TOSRA subscales combined to form a revealing predictive model for future selection of science courses of girls, but not boys. Results of these analyses suggest that, for young high-ability girls, Science-related attitudes are more predictive of science course selection than they are for boys. Positive feelings and perceptions of science among females translate to greater interest in science classes.

The three subscales that emerged as predictors for high-ability girls were Normality of Scientists, Enjoyment of Science Lessons, and Leisure Interest in Science. The Normality of Scientists subscale measures students' views of scientists as "traditional" versus "nontraditional" people. The appearance of Normality of Scientists, as the primary predictor for high-ability girls, raises an issue that requires further examination and reflection. Upon first interpretation, there appears to be a contradictory relationship; that is, girls, who are more likely to view the role of the scientist in a traditional manner, are less likely to select future science courses.

In support of this premise, Sumrall (1995) suggests that the girls may be expressing an acceptance of the role of the scientist as one of male dominance. This conclusion is supported by consistent findings in the research literature for the past 45 years (Chambers, 1983; Mason, Kahle & Gardner, 1991; Mead & Metraux, 1957). While they acknowledge the conventional role of a scientist, girls believe it is not a viable career option for them. Handley and Morse (1984) concur that females' attitude toward science--even more than achievement--is related to gender-role perceptions and belief of male dominance in the field of science. It appears that young high-ability girls perceive that the role of a scientist does not conform to their social sphere of possible options.

Surprisingly, for high-ability boys, none of the TOSRA subscales was a factor in selecting science courses. Young boys appear to be motivated by different variables than are young girls which is supported by the work of Eccles, Adler and Meece (1984) and Ethington (1991). Hence, the results of the analysis of the TOSRA subscales suggest that girls and boys may be connected differently to their environment (Chodorow, 1978, 1989; Gilligan, 1982).

The manifestation of the girls' attitudes toward science is seen in limiting the number of future science courses selected. Girls effectively self-select from science-related academic programs, blocking avenues of career aspirations in the field of science. In agreement, Kelly and Hall (1994) found that high-ability girls were more like average girls and had lower career aspirations than did their male counterparts. When the present findings are coupled with the conclusion that sex-role stereotyped career interests are established by second grade (Silverman, 1986) and that attitudes, rather than achievement (Catsambis, 1995; Simpson & Oliver, 1990; Weinburgh, 1995), are responsible for young girls' disinterest in science, issues regarding efforts to improve attitude, instruction and assessment should be examined. Combined with past research (Catsambis, 1995; Simpson & Oliver, 1990; Weinburgh, 1995), the present study suggests that one must reexamine the relationship of science-related attitudes and gender at the macro- and micro-levels. Together, the subtle differences that are found in the research may provide direction to establish the causal relationship between science attitudes and future interest in science--career aspirations.

Recommendations

Attitudes and quality of instruction may account for 50% of variance in school achievement (Bloom, 1976). Therefore, efforts to increase achievement must be accompanied by efforts to improve attitudes toward science and may need to be tailored for gender. If elementary school children have their own established developmental orientation, these varying needs must be recognized and addressed when creating instruction and assessment (Farenga & Joyce, 1997a, 1997b).

Methods of assessment need to address the construct of science attitudes and student developmental orientation because male and female perceptions of what the construct of science attitude is may vary greatly. Girls may truly be responding from a developmental orientation that is different from that of boys (Chodorow, 1978, 1989; Gilligan, 1982). If this is true, then methods of assessment need to be reexamined regarding gender differences.

Further, Simpson and Oliver (1990) report that feelings of success and enjoyment, coupled with family support, serve as motivating factors regarding science-related interests. These factors--Enjoyment of Science Lessons and Leisure Interest in Science--appeared in the predictive model for young high-ability girls. These findings suggest actions to be considered by parents and educators.

At home, parents can provide opportunities to foster a leisure interest in science by involving their young children in informal science activities, such as exposure to scientific media (e.g., TV, video, computer software, and periodicals), and family vacations (e.g., visits to zoos, aquariums, national parks, and science museums). By helping their children to recognize science in everyday activities, parents can heighten science-related awareness, interest, and attitude. To compensate for gender-related deficiencies in science-related experience, parents should make special efforts to encourage girls, as well as boys, to participate in these informal science activities (Farenga & Joyce, 1997a, 1997b). The importance of prior experience in learning should not be underestimated. This view of learning has been promoted for years by seminal thinkers in education--Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Montessori, Dewey, and Piaget. The prior experience gained through these leisure interests and science-related activities may foster future science enjoyment in school.

To encourage enjoyment of science lessons, educators should ensure that students see science as appealing through hands-on, inquiry-based activities. When developing their science lessons, educators must be sure that students have sufficient prior knowledge to serve as a foundation--allowing them to understand, enjoy, and grow from the experience.

The variables that affect high-ability girls' attitudes toward science may be more subtle than in the past. However, their combined effect may produce the same result--fewer girls participating in science.

REFERENCES

American Association of University Women. (1991). Summary: Shortchanging girls, shortchanging America. Washington, DC: Author.

American Association of University Women. (1992). How schools shortchange girls. Washington, DC: Author.

Ayers, J. B., & Price, C. O. (1975). Children's attitude toward science. School Science and Mathematics, 75, 311-318.

Bloom, B. S. (1976)Human characteristics and school learning. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Brown, L. M., Tweeton, P. W., & Pacheco, D. (1975). Attitude differences among high school students, teachers and parents on topics of current interest. Science Education, 59, 467-473.

Catsambis, S. (1995). Gender, race, ethnicity, and science education in the middle class. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 32(3), 243-257.

Chambers, D. W. (1983). Stereotypic images of the scientist: The Draw-A-Scientist Test. Science Education, 67, 255-256.

Chodorow, N. J. (1978). The reproduction of mothering. Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press.

Chodorow, N. J. (1989). Feminism and psychoanalytic theory. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Eccles, J. S., Adler, T. F., & Meece, J. L. (1984). Sex differences in achievement: A test of alternate theories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 26-43.

Ethington, C., A. (1991). A test of a model of achievement behaviors. American Educational Research Journal, 28(1), 155-172.

Farenga, S. J., & Joyce, B. A. (1997a). Beyond the classroom: Gender difference in science experience. Education, 117(4), 563-569.

Farenga, S. J., & Joyce, B. A. (1997b). What children bring to the classroom: Learning science from experience. School Science and Mathematics, 97(5), 248-252.

Fraser, B. J. (1980). Science teacher characteristics and student attitudinal outcomes. School Science and Mathematics, 62, 417-426.

Fraser, B. J. (1981). Test of Science-Related Attitudes. Australia: The Australian Council for Educational Research Limited.

Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Haertel, G. D., Walberg, H. J., Junker, L., & Pascarella, E. T. (1981). Early adolescent sex differences in science learning: Evidence from the National Assessment of Educational Progress. American Educational Research Journal, 18(3), 329-341.

Handley, H. M., & Morse, L. W. (1984). Two-year study relating adolescents' self-concept and gender role perceptions to achievement and attitude toward science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 21,599-607.

Hasan, O. E., & Billeh, V. Y. (1975). Relationship between teachers' change in attitudes toward science and some professional variables. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 12,247-253.

Kahle, J. B., & Lakes, M. K. (1983). The myth of equality in science classrooms. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 20(2), 131-140.

Kelly, A. (Ed.). (1981). The missing half. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press.

Kelly, K., & Hall, A. (1994). Effects of academic achievement and gender on occupational aspirations and career interests. In N. Colangelo, S. Assouline, & D. L. Ambroson, Talent development (pp. 447-453). Dayton, OH: Ohio Psychology Press.

Klopfer, L. E. (1971). Evaluation of learning in science. In B. S. Bloom, J. T. Hastings, and G. F. Madams (Eds.), Handbook on formative and summative evaluation of student learning (pp. 559-642). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Krockover, G. H., & Malcolm, M. D. (1978). The effects of the Science Curriculum Improvement Study upon a child's attitude toward science. School Science and Mathematics, 78, 575-584.

Linn, M. C., & Hyde, J. S. (1989). Gender, mathematics, and science. Educational Researcher, 18, 17-19.

Mason, C. L., Kahle, J. B., & Gardner, A. L. (1991). Draw-A-Scientist Test: Future implications. School Science and Mathematics, 91(5), 193-198.

Mead, M., & Metraux, R. (1957). Image of the scientist among high school students: A pilot study. Science, 126(3269), 383-390.

Midgley, C., Eccles, J., & Feldlaufer, H. (1991). Classroom environments and transition to junior high school. In B. J. Fraser and H. J. Walberg (Eds.), Educational environments.' Evaluation, antecedents and consequences. New York: Pergamon Press.

New York State Education Department. (1986). Elementary science syllabus. Albany, NY: The University of the State of New York.

Oakes, J. (1990). Opportunities, achievement, and choice: Women and minority students in science and mathematics. Review of Research in Education, 16, 153-222.

Renzulli, J. S. (1977). Enrichment triad model: A guide for developing defensible programs for the gifted and talented. Ventura, CA: Office of the Ventura County Superintendent of Schools.

Renzulli, J. S. (1984). The triad-revolving door system: A research-based approach to identification and programming for the gifted and talented. Gifted Child Quarterly, 28, 163-171.

Schibeci, R., A., & McGaw, B. (1981). Empirical validation of the conceptual structure of a Test of Science-Related Attitudes. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 41, 1195-1201.

Shymansky, J. A., & Kyle, W. C. (1988). A summary of research in science education-1986. Science Education, 72, 245-373.

Silverman, L. K. (1986). What happens in the gifted girl? In C. J. Maker (Ed.), Critical issues in gifted education: Defensible programs for the gifted (pp. 43-89). Rockville, MD: Aspen.

Simpson, R. D., & Oliver, J. S. (1990). A summary of major influences on attitude toward and achievement in science among adolescent students. Science Education, 74(1), 118.

Steinkamp, M. W. (1984). Motivational style as a mediator of adult achievement in science. In M. W. Steinkamp & M. L Maehr (Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement: Women in science. (pp. 281-317). New York: JAI Press.

Steinkamp, M. W., & Maehr, M. (1983). Affect, ability and science achievement: A quantitative synthesis of correlational research. Review of Educational Research, 53, 369-396.

Sumrall. W. J. (1995). Reasons for the perceived images of scientists by race and gender of students in grades 1-7. School Science and Mathematics, 95(2), 83-91.

Terman, L. M., & Oden, M. H. (1935). Genetic studies of genius: Vol. 3. The promise of youth. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press,

The Psychological Corporation (1989). Stanford achievement test. San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.

Weinburgh, M. (1995). Gender differences in student attitudes toward science: A metaanalysis of literature from 1970 to 1991. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 32(4), 387-398.

Wilson, V. L. (1983). A meta-analysis of the relationships between science achievement and science attitudes from kindergarten through college. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 20, 839-850.

Yager, R. E., & Penick, J. E. (1989). An exemplary program payoff: What student perceptions reveal about science programs. The Science Teacher, 28, 54-56.

Stephen Farenga is an assistant professor at Dowling College, Oakdale, New York. His areas of specialty are science education and gifted education. Beverly Joyce is also an assistant professor at Dowling College. Her areas of specialty are educational research, measurement, and evaluation.

Manuscript submitted July, 1997. Revision accepted December, 1998.