School counselors and information literacy from the perspective of Willard Daggett. (Special issue: career development and the changing workplace).

The central leadership role to be played by school counselors in 21st century schools focuses on growth and success for all students. The American School Counseling Association National Model: A Framework for School Counseling Programs emphasizes closing the academic, career, and personal/social development achievement gaps among disparate groups of students (American School Counselor Association [ASCA], 2003). Within the National Model context, school counselors take on greater significance, assuming leadership and change agent roles within the school community. Yet, with the tremendous expansion of school counselor responsibilities, there is a lack of data regarding the knowledge base of school counselor preparation in relation to actual practice (Holcomb-McCoy, Bryan, & Rahill, 2002). As a result, expecting school counselors to be leaders in creating and nurturing a school vision that effectively prepares students for the future and supports classroom teachers, administrators, and the school community challenges the status quo at many levels.

To initiate such a change process, school counselors must alter their basic understanding of what education means. Expanding school counselor leadership requires questioning current definitions about literacy and learning and expectations about student achievement and success.

School counselors need to track global changes that will undoubtedly require new ways of thinking about what students must know to meet future employment needs. Subsequently, they need to communicate the implications of these changes to students, teachers, curriculum development specialists, administrators, parents, and community stakeholders.

School counselors risk becoming irrelevant when they fail to bridge the gap between present student outcomes and future employment needs. Conversely, as a result of helping students make curriculum choices, accessing community feedback, and understanding of student development theory, school counselors can be knowledgeable of what students need to know and what they need to be able to do as adults within an increasingly competitive technological and global workplace.

CHANGING ROLES OF THE SCHOOL COUNSELOR

With education increasingly accountable for what students can do and not just for the courses they take, the emphasis in schools is moving from teaching to learning. Schools are asked to create learner-centered opportunities, with school counselors advocating for active learning through resources and strategies that appeal to varied student interests and learning styles. Watching youth struggle within and through their high school transition, school counselors see opportunities for integrating relevant activities into classrooms, thus providing students access to the skills and knowledge needed to function in a technological, information-based society. School counselors observe returning students, study annual follow-up reports, and gain insights into the performance requirements for information management and decision making (U.S. Department of Labor, 1999). They are well aware that students are increasingly demanded to retrieve, analyze, and evaluate large amounts of data and to distinguish fact from opinion as they make sound decisions.

More than ever counselors must play an active role in shaping curricular and instructional decisions as technology skills and higher and more diverse forms of literacy are expected of students to become truly educated adults. This can be accomplished by astute analysis of labor market trends, emerging fields, developing technologies, and human resource development issues. Counselors need to share workplace-related data to ensure understanding of current and future workplace literacy requirements. As they witness the escalating influence of technology and information, they are expected to argue for the educational options needed to prepare students for success in a dynamic workplace.

CHANGING DEFINITION OF AN EDUCATED PERSON

In the waning industrial economy, a baccalaureate degree generally guaranteed a good-paying job and a stable, respectable career. Many school counselors advised students and parents to believe that only those with a 4-year college education, and preferably a liberal arts degree, would become the educated elite. Accordingly, high schools and school counseling programs have focused on and been rewarded for producing students with the math, science, and English/language arts skills needed for college entrance.

As the United States completes its shift from an industrial to information-based economy, the math, science, and English/language arts skills needed within the workplace now are different from, and often higher than, those needed for college. No longer is a 4-year degree a guarantee of success in the job market. In many cases, what individuals can do and the skills they can apply have become much more important than where they went to school, what their grades were, or how many credits they accumulated in a field.

A LOOK AT THE FUTURE AND INFORMATION LITERACY 

Most Americans agree that the education system should give all students as rigorous and relevant an educational experience as possible. Central to that experience is acquiring standards-based academic skills, career-technical skills, study and interpersonal skills, and the ability to apply knowledge at multiple levels. Although the traditional curriculum remains essential, it is also proving insufficient. A new hierarchy of competencies has emerged, headed by strong technology and literacy skills. These two skill sets blend into a skills taxonomy called information literacy. With unskilled labor disappearing and the need for all students to become lifelong learners, this emerging information literacy is critical for success. The impact of technology and the changing nature of literacy will be increasingly important as technologies such as the Semantic Web (Berners-Lee & Fischetti, 2000) become better understood.

Along with biotechnology and nanotechnology advances, the Semantic Web will demand fundamental shifts in the concept of literacy required to be competent. The Semantic Web is based upon new technology adaptation that operates similar to the human brain. By connecting new information to recognizable prior knowledge through the identification and comprehension of similar underlying themes or meanings, the Semantic Web creates a common language to serve as an international and universally understandable dictionary or thesaurus for words, phrases, and concepts. Concepts will be cross-referenced to this common dictionary, crafting an entirely new communication system.

This will enable students to ask a complex question or raise an issue and have the entire Semantic Web search for a solution. Moreover, the results will prompt back to the user, checking for (a) accuracy of the inquiry information, (b) reporting format preferences (e.g., table, map, chart, or prose report), and (c) readability level and language of choice for the deliverable. Virtually, the Semantic Web will "draft" a complete report.

The Semantic Web will change how the Internet is used and how information is analyzed, synthesized, created, accessed, and reported around the globe. In doing so, it will change the key communication skills of reading, writing, speaking, listening, viewing, and presenting, merging them profoundly with computer mediation and management skills. Thus, how school counselors advise students about what has traditionally been called communication, reading, research, writing, and literacy skills will need to be redefined.

As languages converge between professions (e.g., engineering, medicine, education) as well as between peoples of the world into a single communication system, the Semantic Web will deepen the concept of a global village in ways hard to comprehend. While its full impact is impossible to predict, it is reasonable to assume that the Semantic Web will redefine literacy. Getting and creating information via reading and writing, listening and speaking, and viewing and presenting could lose some of its importance when machines begin performing these previously exclusively human tasks. Perhaps the truly literate person will be the one who can evaluate information, assess its reasonableness, and use it to make more insightful decisions and connections--something that could be called information literacy.

In reality, the Semantic Web will not function in isolation. As the genomics process moves forward and scientists integrate bioinformatics data with information systems, the impact on health care, agricultural, environmental, and other technology systems and work options will be exponentially greater. Consider the impact when "smart" nano-sensors implanted into human hearts can monitor heart rhythms and send continuous data as well as warning signals to remote internal monitors that can, in turn, trigger or adjust medication dosages from surgically embedded micro-dispensers of precise measures of heart medication. In this world, information literacy becomes vital; meaning that both level and type of literacy needed--even for basic workplace competency--will increase dramatically.

INFORMATION LITERACY: WHAT RESEARCH SUGGESTS

School counselors must play an integral role in redefining education to coincide with essential 21st century employability skills and technology competencies. Underscoring the need to redefine literacy, several recent studies have noted the enormous human and economic consequences should America not increase literacy levels (Sum, Kirsch, & Taggett, 2002).

The National Adult Literacy Survey (NALS) and International Adult Literacy Survey (IALS) used three separate literacy scales to describe reading, writing, and information-getting and processing tasks (Sum et al.). They are:

* Prose Literacy. The knowledge and skills needed to identify, understand, and use information from continuous text sources as diverse as newspaper editorials, magazine articles, reference sources, and fiction (e.g., finding a key piece of information in a newspaper article, interpreting instructions from a warranty, inferring a theme from a novel, or contrasting views in an editorial).

* Document Literacy. The knowledge and skills required to locate and use information contained in functional materials such as job applications, payroll forms, transportation schedules, online consumer surveys, maps, tables, and graphs (e.g., locating a particular intersection on a street map, using a schedule to choose a train, or entering information in an application form).

* Quantitative Literacy. The knowledge and skills required to apply arithmetic operations, either singly or sequentially, using numerals and quantitative data embedded in printed materials (e.g., balancing a checkbook, figuring a tip, completing an order form, or determining the amount of interest from a loan advertisement).

These studies offer insight to school counselors and should be used to define and set benchmarks for 21 st century literacy.

After more than two decades of school reform, gross demographic inequalities in the national literacy rate remain. This is an intolerable situation for a nation committed to equal educational opportunity and democracy. With good-paying, unskilled jobs declining dramatically in America and information-handling and reading requirements of the workplace increasing steadily, the United States must address literacy for all. This nation must move those at the lowest levels (those who are functionally unemployable) to levels where they can find employment enabling them to sustain a decent standard of living. Without a commitment to the workplace literacy skills of all students, too many future workers face significant limitations.

WORKPLACE LITERACY

Consider the following findings on jobs and the workplace:

* Job growth is becoming restricted to certain higher-skill occupations. Between 1983 and 1996, the growth in jobs requiring an associate's degree or postsecondary career-technical education was 3.1%, more than 50% higher than overall employment growth (Comings et al., 2000).

* The U.S. Department of Labor estimates that 70% of the fastest growing jobs will require postsecondary education and that 42% of all jobs projected to 2010 will require a postsecondary vocational certificate or an academic degree (Hecker, 2001).

* U.S. business leaders attribute over $60 billion in productivity losses annually to employees' lack of basic skills (Employment Policies Institute, 2001).

* Ninety percent of Fortune 1000 executives have stated that low employee literacy hurts their business (Sum et al., 2002).

* Individuals with minimal skills will qualify for only 10% of all new jobs open between now and 2006 (Employment Policies Institute, 2001).

Recognizing the serious disconnection between the reading and literacy skills graduates bring to the workplace and what employers need, the International Center for Leadership in Education (2002) completed a project to define the literacy gap and its implications. The Lexile Framework, an independent, research-based readability measurement tool developed by MetaMetrics (2001), uses a computer program called the Lexile Analyzer[R] to examine and analyze whole texts. It reports a Lexile measure based on uniform increments from lowest to highest difficulty.

The International Center researchers collected authentic workplace and employment documents as well as professional reading materials from a wide range of businesses. Materials included handbooks, manuals, forms, reports, memos, directives, and other reading considered part of employees' core job responsibilities. Documents were sorted and analyzed using the Lexile Scale according to whether they must be, should be, or might be read as part of job duties; and the frequency with which they would typically be read, used, or referred to by workers. Jobs studied were classified as entry level, intermediate level, or advanced level. For example, health services occupations might include entry-level medical assistants, intermediate-level respiratory technologists, and advanced-level hospital administrators, doctors, and nursing supervisors.

For comparative purposes, researchers also collected and analyzed a variety of nonemployment-related reading sources--college and high school textbooks, academic and professional assessment tools, newspapers, best-selling books, consumer forms, and other widely used documents. These sources were ones adults at all socioeconomic levels could reasonably be expected to read independently with a high rate of comprehension.

Analyses indicated that readability levels of the employment documents were nearly as high as, or higher than, many of the literary works, textbooks, and assessments encountered in high school and college curricula. Furthermore, the readability requirements of documents used in entry-level positions were neither consistently nor significantly lower than those used in higher-level jobs. Finally, the International Center determined that many of the most difficult reading tasks were required across all job levels.

The implications of this study are significant to school counselors when defining reading and literacy expectations and standards in schools. As the sheer load of information increases across all facets of life, counselors must promote an increasing emphasis on literacy in school programs. Content-reading skills and information literacy have become essential skills for negotiating the demands of daily life and developing key employability competencies.

WHAT INFORMATION LITERACY FINDINGS MEAN FOR SCHOOL COUNSELORS

As student literacy advocates, school counselors must alert decision-makers, parents, and students that the reading tasks required by the broad spectrum of adult roles involve higher readability levels than previously understood. Reports from both national and regional business organizations point to the basic skills gaps between graduates and employer needs (American Management Association, 2001; Employment Policies Institute, 2001; Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, 1991). The International Center's ongoing examination of workplace reading and literacy demands demonstrates that schools have prepared students neither for the readability levels of many entry-level job workplace documents nor for the literacy proficiencies workers and other adults use in their daily lives (Sum et al., 2002). In light of the following findings (see Daggett & McBride, 2002), education needs to consider reallocating its resources and raising its expectations:

* The U.S. spends the most per capita on education of all nations surveyed. Yet, the overall literacy rate barely matches the world average.

* U.S. literacy rates are lower for young adults compared to young adults of other nations.

* Changing demographics worsen the U.S. literacy problem. The fastest growing segments of the U.S. population (minorities) and the youngest adults (ages 16-36) are the least literate in comparison to other nations. To a significant extent, these groups will comprise the future work force.

* As well-paying, low-skilled jobs continue to be replaced by technology, a growing segment of the population with low literacy levels is becoming functionally unemployable.

* The U.S. spends far above the international average on higher education (for the more literate) and well below the international average for basic adult education (for the least literate).

Literacy programs for both children and adults must become a national priority. Fiscal and human resources need to be directed differently. Moreover, as the ongoing research at the International Center shows, education must also broaden its definition of literacy to include not only prose, but also document and quantitative literacy. With the influence school counselors hold in student curriculum decisions, their leadership in promoting greater attention to literacy cannot be understated.

TOWARD INFORMATION LITERACY: THE CHALLENGE TO SCHOOL COUNSELORS

In its efforts to raise standards, the U.S. education system has not kept abreast with society. The standards movement that typically defines state testing requirements uses a 1950s perspective of literacy, thus overlooking the learning, behavior, and literacy skills underpinning the increasingly technological world. To update literacy requirements, school counselors must influence decision making so that more rigorous and relevant academic, workplace, and adult role competencies are included within school curricula. It is imperative that schools teach the broad-based, high-utility skills of (a) accessing information in an effective and efficient manner, (b) evaluating information for both accuracy and completeness, and (c) using information in effective and creative ways. Considering the promise of "intelligent technology" (i.e., Semantic Web) in addressing routine problem solving and decision making, human creativity will need to be highly developed to actualize fully both human and technology's potential.

Current K-12 English/language arts standards as well as instructional practices, notably the neglect of instruction in reading after grade 6, need to be rethought. U.S. schools must raise literacy to more internationally competitive levels. In an age of information literacy, nanotechnology, and the Semantic Web, school counselors must use their voices to improve the quality of educational options from which students choose. For students to access the skills needed to create higher levels of discourse and analysis for effective decision making, school counselors cannot be passive. Ultimately, unnerving as it may sound, school counselors need to argue for raising U.S. academic standards and achievement.

FINAL REFLECTIONS

The ASCA National Model is applauded for its focus on accountability, the goal of better preparation of students, and its stand that "encourages school counselors to become catalysts for educational change and to assume or accept a leadership role in educational reform" (ASCA, 2003, p. 13). Its affirmation of school counselors as change agents, collaborators, and advocates is forward thinking. Yet, school counselors need to expand their influence, assume a role in mentoring teachers about the changing workplace, more persuasively convince administrators to provide only rigorous and relevant learning options, and effectively alert parents and students about information literacy expectations. Unless school counselors assume leadership that demands higher standards and greater levels of achievement, their role will become irrelevant.

As school counselors help the definitions of information literacy and lifelong education evolve and expand their link with the world of business, students will find better options available. Acceptance of this challenge is essential if school counselors are to become a force behind any movement to better prepare students with the literacy they will need to succeed.

References

American School Counselor Association. (2003). The ASCA national model: A framework for school counseling programs. Alexandria, VA: Author.

American Management Association. (2001). 2001 AMA survey on workplace testing: Basic skills, job skills, psychological measurement. New York: American Management Association. Retrieved January 28, 2003, from http://www.amanet.org/research/pdfs/bjp_2001.pdf

Berners-Lee, T., & Fischetti, M. (2000). Weaving the Web: The original design and ultimate destiny of the World Wide Web. New York: HarperCollins.

Comings, J., Hartman, A., McLendon, L., Murphy, S., Pugsley, R., Sorensen, R., et al. (2000). From the margins to the mainstream: An action agenda for literacy. Washington, DC: National Literacy Summit 2000. Retrieved January 28, 2003, from http://www.nationalliteracysummit.org/

Daggett, W. R., & McBride, R J. (2002). 21st century literacy--the challenge to schools. Rexford, NY: International Center for Leadership in Education.

Employment Policies Institute. (2001). State flexibility: The minimum wage and welfare reform. Washington, DC: Employment Policies Institute. Retrieved January 28, 2003, from http://www.epionline.org/ study_epi_stflex_minwage_03-2001_2.html

Hecker, D. E. (2001). Occupational employment projections to 2010. Monthly Labor Review Online, U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics. Retrieved January 28, 2003, from http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2001/11/ art4abs.htm

Holcomb-McCoy, C., Bryan, J., & Rahill, S. (2002). Importance of the CACREP school counseling standards: School counselor's perceptions. Professional School Counseling, 6, 112-119.

International Center for Leadership in Education. (2002). Leading with reading in grades 7-12. Rexford, NY: Author.

MetaMetrics. (2001, June). How is readability determined within The Lexile Framework for Reading? Durham, NC: Author.

Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills. (1991). What work requires of schools: A SCANS report for America 2000. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor.

Sum, A., Kirsch, I., & Taggart, R. (2002). The twin challenges of mediocrity and inequality: Literacy in the U.S. from an international perspective. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.

U.S. Department of Labor. (1999). Futurework: Trends and challenges for work in the 21st century. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor. Retrieved January 28, 2003, from http://www.dol.gov/asp/programs/history/herman/repo rts/futurework/report.htm

Willard R. Daggett, Ed.D., is president, International Center for Leadership in Education, Rexford, NY. E-mail: [e-mail] He is known worldwide for his efforts to move education systems towards more rigorous and relevant skills and knowledge for all students and sponsors the Model Schools Conference.