School counselors' career satisfaction and commitment: correlates and predictors.The purpose of this article is to investigate correlates and predictors of school counselors' career satisfaction and commitment. Regression regression, in psychology: see defense mechanism. regression In statistics, a process for determining a line or curve that best represents the general trend of a data set. analyses of 1,280 Florida Florida, state, United States Florida (flôr`ĭdə, flŏr`–), state in the extreme SE United States. A long, low peninsula between the Atlantic Ocean (E) and the Gulf of Mexico (W), Florida is bordered by Georgia and counselors' survey responses indicated that positive predictors of career satisfaction included appropriate duties, high self-efficacy self-efficacy (selfˈ-eˑ·fi·k , and district and peer supervision, while negative predictors were inappropriate duties and stress. The only positive predictor of career commitment was appropriate counseling duties while the only negative predictor was stress. Results and future directions are discussed. ********** The school counseling profession is at a turning point as school counselors A school counselor is a counselor and educator who works in schools, and have historically been referred to as "guidance counselors" or "educational counselors," although "Professional School Counselor" is now the preferred term. implement the ASCA ASCA American School Counselor Association ASCA Australian Shepherd Club of America ASCA Arab Society of Certified Accountants ASCA American Swimming Coaches Association ASCA American Society of Consulting Arborists ASCA Association of State Correctional Administrators National Model[R] (American American, river, 30 mi (48 km) long, rising in N central Calif. in the Sierra Nevada and flowing SW into the Sacramento River at Sacramento. The discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill (see Sutter, John Augustus) along the river in 1848 led to the California gold rush of School Counselor Association, 2002; Schwallie-Giddis, ter Maat a. 1. Dejected; sorrowful; downcast. , & Pak, 2003). In order to successfully implement this model, the profession must recruit and retain committed school counselors (Schwallie-Giddis et al.). Recruitment and retention of school counselors can be enhanced by examining factors related to their career satisfaction and commitment levels. The purpose of this article is to investigate correlates and predictors of school counselors' career satisfaction and commitment. Specifically, we examined the variables of appropriate and inappropriate counselor duties, as identified in the ASCA National Model, motivational factors of self-efficacy, district and peer supervision, and stress to determine their relationship with school counselors' career satisfaction and commitment. CAREER SATISFACTION AND COMMITMENT Career satisfaction and commitment are important factors linked to job achievement and accomplishment (Holland, 1997). Employees with higher job satisfaction are more likely to increase their commitment to their employer (Hamermesh, 2001). Career satisfaction has been correlated cor·re·late v. cor·re·lat·ed, cor·re·lat·ing, cor·re·lates v.tr. 1. To put or bring into causal, complementary, parallel, or reciprocal relation. 2. to career commitment in educational fields (Goulet Goulet is a surname and may refer to:
Singh is a Sanskrit word meaning "lion". It is used as a common surname and middle name in North India by many communities, especially by the Sikhs and the Rajputs. , 2002), such as teaching (Reyes Reyes , Point A promontory on the central California coast northwest of San Francisco. It is reported to be the windiest and foggiest place on the western coast of the continental United States, with an average of 137 foggy days a year. & Shin shin (shin) the prominent anterior edge of the tibia or the leg. saber shin marked anterior convexity of the tibia, seen in congenital syphilis and in yaws. , 1995) and coaching (Raedeke, Warren, & Granzyk, 2002). With the current reality of projected school counselor shortages (Baggerly, 2002; Hobson Hobson may refer to: People with the surname Hobson:
Virginia, state of the south-central United States. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean (E), North Carolina and Tennessee (S), Kentucky and West Virginia (W), and Maryland and the District of Columbia (N and NE). elementary school counselors' job satisfaction from 96.3% in 1995 to 90.9% in 2001 was most likely due to "mandated statewide accountability testing, cutbacks in personnel, school violence, and societal so·ci·e·tal adj. Of or relating to the structure, organization, or functioning of society. so·ci  e·tal·ly adv.Adj. changes" (p. 243). However, they did not examine middle and high school counselors' job satisfaction. Several research studies have identified factors related to career satisfaction of rehabilitation rehabilitation: see physical therapy. and substance abuse counselors (Andrew, Faubion, & Palmer, 2002; Evans Ev·ans , Herbert McLean 1882-1971. American anatomist who isolated four pituitary hormones and discovered vitamin E (1922). & Hohenshil, 1997; Garske, 1999, 2002; Szymanski & Parker, 1995; Wilkinson Noun 1. Wilkinson - English chemist honored for his research on pollutants in car exhausts (born in 1921) Sir Geoffrey Wilkinson & Wagner, 1993). These identified factors were as follows: (a) extrinsic EVIDENCE, EXTRINSIC. External evidence, or that which is not contained in the body of an agreement, contract, and the like. 2. It is a general rule that extrinsic evidence cannot be admitted to contradict, explain, vary or change the terms of a contract or of a job factors, such as safety, healthy environment, and professional nature (Andrew et al.); (b) clinical supervision variables (Evans & Hohenshil); (c) higher productivity (Wilkinson & Wagner); and (d) supervisory leadership styles (Wilkinson & Wagner). Sources of satisfaction included the opportunities to help others and working to solve problems (Evans & Hohenshil; Garske, 1999). Sources of dissatisfaction included limited opportunities for advancement (Evans & Hohenshil; Garske, 2002), lower salaries (Garske, 2002), and dealing with bureaucracies and paperwork (Garske, 1999). ASCA NATIONAL MODEL DUTIES ASCA (2002) identified that appropriate school counselor duties should include such activities as counseling students, presenting guidance lessons, consulting with teachers and principals, and designing individual student academic programs. Inappropriate counseling duties included such activities as registering students, administering achievement tests, doing clerical record keeping, and disciplining students. When school counselors implement appropriate duties, students' academic and behavioral behavioral pertaining to behavior. behavioral disorders see vice. behavioral seizure see psychomotor seizure. success has been found to increase (Brigman & Campbell, 2003; Sink & Stroh, 2003). However, research indicates that many school counselors do not spend the recommended amount of time on appropriate duties (Baggerly, 2002; Osborn & Baggerly, 2004; Texas Education Agency, 1996). For example, 60% of Florida school counselor respondents In the context of marketing research, a representative sample drawn from a larger population of people from whom information is collected and used to develop or confirm marketing strategy. reported that the time they spent administering the FCAT FCAT Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test (statewide standardized test for Florida school children) , Florida's mandated accountability test, hindered their response to urgent student and teacher needs (Baggerly, 2002). Sixty-five percent of Virginia's school counselors reported that state-mandated accountability testing negatively affected their job satisfaction (DeMato & Curcio, 2004). Dissatisfaction due to standardized testing A standardized test is a test administered and scored in a standard manner. The tests are designed in such a way that the "questions, conditions for administering, scoring procedures, and interpretations are consistent" [1] is reflected in one Florida school counselor's response: "There is so much that counselors could do in schools; however, we have all become paper pushers due to FCAT. It is very sad and disheartening dis·heart·en tr.v. dis·heart·ened, dis·heart·en·ing, dis·heart·ens To shake or destroy the courage or resolution of; dispirit. See Synonyms at discourage. " (Baggerly). Does this frustration of not being able to implement appropriate duties significantly impact school counselors' career satisfaction and commitment? Do school counselors who implement appropriate duties have higher levels of career satisfaction and commitment? INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS Career satisfaction and commitment are impacted by internal motivational factors, such as self-efficacy, as well as external motivational factors, such as direct feedback from role models (i.e., supervisors and peers) and environmental conditions (e.g., distress from administrators' paperwork demands) (Bandura ban`dur´a n. 1. A traditional Ukrainian stringed musical instrument shaped like a lute, having many strings. , 1997). School counselors' self-efficacy, supervision by district supervisors and peers, and stress levels have been studied previously. Sutton Sutton, outer borough (1991 pop. 164,300) of Greater London, SE England. It is mainly residential, but plastics, chemicals, radio components, and paper goods are produced. The areas of Sutton were mentioned in the Domesday Book. and Fall (1995) found that school counselors' self-efficacy was predicted by a higher degree of support from staff and fewer non-counseling-related duties. Baggerly (2002) identified that school counselors' self-efficacy was highest for appropriate duties such as "classroom guidance (60.1%), individual counseling (66.2%), small group counseling (54.7%), and consulting with teachers (62.6%), parents (63.5%), and administrators (60.7%)" (p. 13) but lowest for inappropriate duties such as coordinating SATs, ACTs, benchmarks, and other tests (33.9%); disciplining students (35.1%); and doing miscellaneous duties (34.7%). However, these studies did not examine the relationship between self-efficacy and career satisfaction and commitment. Counseling supervisors are essential to school counselors' personal and professional development and to developing "a commitment to, and a clear perception of, the professional role and function" (Bradley, 1989, p. 10), particularly because some administrators may not have a clear perception of school counselors' appropriate duties. Counseling supervisors provide important factors that correlate with career satisfaction and commitment, such as mentoring (Blackhurst, 2000; Eastman & Williams, 1993; Ensher, Thomas (language) Thomas - A language compatible with the language Dylan(TM). Thomas is NOT Dylan(TM). The first public release of a translator to Scheme by Matt Birkholz, Jim Miller, and Ron Weiss, written at Digital Equipment Corporation's Cambridge Research Laboratory runs , & Murphy, 2001), leadership support (Billingsley & Cross, 1992), and social support for women (Harris, Moritzen, Robitschek, Imhoff, & Lynch, 2001). Yet, in Page, Pietrzak, and Sutton's (2001) survey of 267 ASCA members, only 13% of respondents received individual clinical supervision and only 11% received group clinical supervision, although 57% wanted clinical supervision in the future. Baggerly (2002) found a significant difference between the amount of supervision that Florida school counselor respondents desired and the amount they received from their district supervisor, but no significant difference between the amount of supervision they desired and received from their peers. However, these studies did not examine the relationship between supervision and career satisfaction and commitment. High distress levels of school counselors have been attributed to a lack of clearly defined roles and quasi-administrative tasks (Studer & Allton, 1996) and vicarious vicarious /vi·car·i·ous/ (vi-kar´e-us) 1. acting in the place of another or of something else. 2. occurring at an abnormal site. vi·car·i·ous adj. 1. trauma (Baggerly & Gentry, 2004). Baggerly (2002) found that school counselors who perceived their job as "much more stressful" or "somewhat more stressful" over the past 2 years constituted approximately 87% of elementary school counselors, 95% of middle school counselors, and 92% of high school counselors. However, studies have not examined the relationship between stress and school counselors' career satisfaction and commitment. While school counselors' career satisfaction, career commitment, appropriate counseling duties (as identified in the ASCA National Model), and motivational factors such as self-efficacy, supervision, and stress have been studied independently, the relationships among these variables have not been explored. In order to meet this need, we conducted a study to answer the following questions: (a) How satisfied are school counselors with their career, and does this vary by school level? (b) How committed are school counselors to their career, and does this vary by school level? (c) Do appropriate duties, inappropriate duties, self-efficacy, frequency of district and peer supervision, and perceived stress correlate with school counselors' career satisfaction? (d) Do these variables predict school counselors' career satisfaction? (e) Do these variables correlate with school counselors' career commitment? And, (f) do these variables predict school counselors' career commitment? METHODS Participants This study utilized selected responses from participants in Baggerly's (2002) study of Florida public school counselors. An anonymous survey was marled to 2,400 counselors, and 1,280 responded, representing a 53% return rate. Respondents included elementary school counselors (63%), middle school counselors (20%), and high school counselors (16%). Eighty-four percent were female whereas 16% were male. Ethnicity ethnicity Vox populi Racial status–ie, African American, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic representation was 84% White; 9% African American African American Multiculture A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. See Race. ; 6% Hispanic Hispanic Multiculture A person of Mexican, Puerto Rican, Cuban, Central or South American, or other Spanish culture or origin, regardless of race Social medicine Any of 17 major Latino subcultures, concentrated in California, Texas, Chicago, Miam, NY, and elsewhere ; and 1% Asian, Native American, or other. Participants' ages were 7% under 30; 18%, 30 to 39; 29%, 40 to 49; and 46%, 50 and over. Instrumentation instrumentation, in music: see orchestra and orchestration. instrumentation In technology, the development and use of precise measuring, analysis, and control equipment. and Procedures Career counseling Noun 1. career counseling - counseling on career opportunities counseling, counselling, guidance, counsel, direction - something that provides direction or advice as to a decision or course of action and career testing questions were included in a larger survey, entitled en·ti·tle tr.v. en·ti·tled, en·ti·tling, en·ti·tles 1. To give a name or title to. 2. To furnish with a right or claim to something: Florida School Counselors Survey 2000, which was developed by adapting the 1994 Texas Education Agency (1996) survey for Florida. This larger survey consisted of 154 items, including sections on (a) descriptive attributes (23 items), (b) time spent on counselor duties (114 items), (c) time spent on the FCAT (4 items), (d) supervision (9 items), and (e) counseling and career theory (4 items) (Baggerly, 2002). Participants were asked to base their responses on individual perceptions rather than a general perspective of all counselors in their schools. To identify school counselors' time spent on duties, 18 different duties were presented and participants were asked to indicate their perceptions of the "actual time" spent on these duties through a 4-point rating scale (i.e., "most of my time," "much of my time," "some time," or "very little time"). For purposes of this study, duties were categorized cat·e·go·rize tr.v. cat·e·go·rized, cat·e·go·riz·ing, cat·e·go·riz·es To put into a category or categories; classify. cat according to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. the ASCA National Model as follows: (a) appropriate duties, which included classroom guidance, individual counseling, small group counseling, consultation, academic advising, and coordinating 504 or Child Study Team meetings; and (b) inappropriate duties, which included student registration, coordinating the FCAT, administrative duties, disciplining students, and miscellaneous duties (i.e., lunchroom duty, substituting in a classroom). School counselors' self-efficacy for each of these duties was determined by asking participants to answer "How effective and confident do you feel in performing this duty?" on a 4-point rating scale (i.e., low, moderate, high, or very high). Supervision was determined by asking participants (a) "How often do you receive supervision (face to face or phone) from a counseling supervisor?" and (b) "How often do you receive peer supervision or consultation?" Both items were scored on a 5-point scale (i.e., never, yearly, quarterly, monthly, or weekly). Job-related stress was estimated by asking participants "Has your school counseling position been more or less stressful over the past 2 years?" on a 5-point scale (i.e., much less stressful, somewhat less stressful, neutral, somewhat more stressful, and much more stressful). Career satisfaction was determined by asking participants "How satisfied are you with a job as a school counselor?" on a 5-point scale (i.e., very dissatisfied dis·sat·is·fied adj. Feeling or exhibiting a lack of contentment or satisfaction. dis·sat is·fied , somewhat dissatisfied, neutral,
somewhat satisfied, or very satisfied). Career commitment was determined
by asking participants "What are your future employment plans over
the next 2 years?" (i.e., plan to retire, plan to quit, undecided,
intend to continue). After the data were examined, it was determined
that 70.3% (N = 79) of those who planned to retire were 60 years old or
younger and thus were planning to retire early, which may be seen as
similar to quitting. Therefore, employment plans were recoded so that
"plan to retire" and "plan to quit" were combined
into one category.Data Analysis Percentages were obtained for school counselors' career satisfaction and career commitment. Means and standard deviations In statistics, the average amount a number varies from the average number in a series of numbers. (statistics) standard deviation - (SD) A measure of the range of values in a set of numbers. were obtained for school counselors' career satisfaction, actual time spent on appropriate duties (i.e., individual and group counseling, career counseling, consulting, and academic advising), inappropriate duties (student registration, FCAT testing, SAT/ACT administration, administrative duties, disciplinary duties, and miscellaneous duties), self-efficacy of appropriate duties, self-efficacy of inappropriate duties, supervision by district, supervision by peers, and stress. Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients Noun 1. Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient - the most commonly used method of computing a correlation coefficient between variables that are linearly related product-moment correlation coefficient were obtained to determine the degree of relationships among these variables. For both career satisfaction and commitment, one-way analyses of variance The discrepancy between what a party to a lawsuit alleges will be proved in pleadings and what the party actually proves at trial. In Zoning law, an official permit to use property in a manner that departs from the way in which other property in the same locality (ANOVAs) were conducted to determine significant differences among categories and variables. Predictors for career satisfaction and commitment were analyzed an·a·lyze tr.v. an·a·lyzed, an·a·lyz·ing, an·a·lyz·es 1. To examine methodically by separating into parts and studying their interrelations. 2. Chemistry To make a chemical analysis of. 3. through multiple regressions Multiple regression The estimated relationship between a dependent variable and more than one explanatory variable. . Effect sizes were calculated for ANOVAs and regression analyses (Trusty, Thompson Thompson, city, Canada Thompson, city (1991 pop. 14,977), central Man., Canada, on the Burntwood River. A mining town, it developed after large nickel deposits were discovered in the area in 1956. , & Petrocelli, 2004). RESULTS Description of the Data Table 1 provides the means and standard deviations of school counselors' career satisfaction, duties, self-efficacy, supervision, and stress. For career satisfaction, school counselors at all levels and in the elementary, middle, and high school levels were "somewhat satisfied." Specifically, the largest percentage of school counselor respondents (N= 566; 44.7%) indicated being "somewhat satisfied" with their career while the second largest percentage (N = 503; 39.8%) indicated being "very satisfied." The lowest endorsed category was "very dissatisfied," with only 51 (4%) respondents endorsing this level of career satisfaction. There was no significant difference among elementary, middle, and high school counselors on career satisfaction. For other variables in Table 1, the means indicate that the average school counselor (a) spends some of his or her time on appropriate duties but slightly less time on inappropriate duties, although middle school counselors do the opposite; (b) perceives high self-efficacy on appropriate duties but only moderate self-efficacy on inappropriate duties; (c) receives yearly supervision from the district and slightly more from a peer; and (d) perceives the job as much more stressful over the past 2 years, with middle and high school counselors perceiving more stress than elementary school counselors. For career commitment, the largest percentage of respondents (N = 964; 76.4%) indicated they planned to "continue," the second largest percentage was "undecided" (N = 164; 13.0%), and the smallest percentage was planning to "quit or retire" (N = 134; 10.6%). There was no significant difference among elementary, middle, and high school counselors on career commitment. Correlates of Career Satisfaction Correlates among variables were examined in order to ascertain the relationship between career satisfaction and other variables. There was a significant correlation (p < .01) between satisfaction and appropriate duties (r = .14), inappropriate duties (r = -.185), supervision by a district counselor (r = .10), supervision by a peer (r = .09), and stress (r = -.30). Higher levels of satisfaction were related to higher levels of performing appropriate duties and receiving district and peer supervision. Lower levels of satisfaction were related to higher levels of performing inappropriate duties and stress. There was not a significant correlation between career satisfaction and self-efficacy for appropriate duties or self-efficacy for inappropriate duties. One-way ANOVAs were conducted to determine differences among those who were satisfied (very or somewhat) versus those who were dissatisfied (very or somewhat). With satisfaction as the between-subjects factor, significant differences were noted for appropriate duties (M = 2.06; SD = .35 versus M = 1.95; SD = .37; F = 16.28, p < .01), inappropriate duties (M = 1.82; SD = .56 versus M = 2.03; SD = .59; F = 22.72, p < .01), supervision by district (M = 2.17; SD = 1.28 versus M = 1.92; SD = 1.22; F = 6.32, p = .01), supervision by peer (M = 2.52; SD = 1.62 versus M = 2.26; SD = 1.59; F = 4.52, p < .05), and stress (M = 3.27; SD = .76 versus M = 3.69; SD = .59; F = 54.08, p < .001). Effect size was small for appropriate duties at .32 (df = 1, 1,240), for inappropriate duties at .37 (df = 1, 1,240), for supervision by district at .20 (df = 1, 1,223), and for supervision by peer at .17 (df = 1, 1,216); and for stress it was medium at .57 (df = 1, 1,229). Nonsignificant non·sig·nif·i·cant adj. 1. Not significant. 2. Having, producing, or being a value obtained from a statistical test that lies within the limits for being of random occurrence. differences were found for self-efficacy ratings for both appropriate and inappropriate duties. Predictors of Career Satisfaction A multiple regression was conducted to determine predictors of school counselors' career satisfaction. Changes in [R.sup.2] indicated that school level (i.e., elementary, middle, and high school) did not contribute significantly to the regression. Based on indicators from the literature review, the following factors were considered: actual time spent on appropriate duties, inappropriate duties, self-efficacy of appropriate duties, self-efficacy of inappropriate duties, supervision by district, supervision by peers, and stress. Table 2 provides the beta ([beta]) coefficients and t values of the predictor variables Noun 1. predictor variable - a variable that can be used to predict the value of another variable (as in statistical regression) variable quantity, variable - a quantity that can assume any of a set of values for all levels (i.e., elementary, middle, and high school combined). As shown in Analysis 1, the regression equation Regression equation An equation that describes the average relationship between a dependent variable and a set of explanatory variables. was significant. The significant positive predictors were appropriate duties, self-efficacy of inappropriate duties, supervision by district supervisor, and supervision by peers. The significant negative predictors included inappropriate duties and stress. The effect size was medium at .15, indicating some "practical significance" (Kotrlik & Williams, 2003). Correlates of Career Commitment Correlates among variables were examined in order to ascertain the relationship between career commitment (stay, undecided, or quit/retire) and other variables. There was a significant correlation (p < .05) between career commitment and appropriate duties (r = .08), supervision by peers (r = .06), and stress (r = -.11). Higher levels of commitment were related to higher levels of appropriate duties and supervision from peers. Lower levels of commitment were related to higher levels of stress. There was not a significant correlation between career commitment and inappropriate duties, self-efficacy for appropriate duties and inappropriate duties, or supervision by the district. One-way ANOVAs were conducted to determine differences among those who were planning to continue as a school counselor versus those who were not continuing or were unsure of their career plans. With commitment as the between-subjects factor, significant differences were noted for appropriate duties (F = 4.63, p < .05), inappropriate duties (F = 5.82, p < .05), and stress (F = 13.65, p < .01). Effect size for career satisfaction was medium at .41 (df = 1, 1,266), for appropriate duties was negligible  This article or section is written like a personal reflection or and may require .Please [ improve this article] by rewriting this article or section in an . at .03 (df = 1, 1,235), for inappropriate duties was negligible at .06 (df = 1, 1,234), and for stress was small at .12 (df = 1, 1,224). Nonsignificant differences were found for self-efficacy ratings for both appropriate and inappropriate duties as well as for supervision. Those who were committed to continuing as a school counselor, as compared to those who were not planning to continue or were unsure, rated themselves statistically significantly higher on appropriate activities (M = 2.06; SD = .36 versus M = 2.01; SD = .35; F = 4.63,p < .05). In addition, those who were committed to continuing as a school counselor, when compared to those who were not planning to continue or were unsure, rated themselves lower on inappropriate activities (M = 1.83; SD = .55 versus M = 1.92; SD = .60; F = 5.82, p < .05) and stress (M = 3.30; SD = .75 versus M = 3.48; SD = .72; F = 13.65, p < .001). Predictors of Career Commitment A second multiple regression was conducted to determine predictors of school counselors' career commitment. Changes in [R.sup.2] indicated that school level (i.e., elementary, middle, and high school) did not contribute significantly to the regression. The following factors were considered: actual time spent on appropriate duties, inappropriate duties, self-efficacy for appropriate duties, self-efficacy for inappropriate duties, supervision by district, supervision by peers, and stress. As shown in Table 2, Analysis 2, the regression equation was significant. The significant positive predictor of career commitment was appropriate duties. The significant negative predictor was stress. The effect size was small at .02, indicating little "practical significance" (Kotrlik & Williams, 2003). DISCUSSION Results of this study lead to several important findings and implications regarding school counselors' career satisfaction and career commitment. School counselor respondents' career satisfaction is relatively high with 84.5% of respondents being "very satisfied" (39.8%) or "somewhat satisfied" (44.7%) for all levels. Our finding is fairly similar to Hamermesh's (2001) landmark finding that 89.8% of employees either "like their job very much" (39.97%) or "like their job fairly well" (49.87%) and to DeMato and Curcio's (2004) finding that 90.9% of elementary school counselors indicated job satisfaction. Hence school counseling appears to be a satisfying profession for most school counselors. Career satisfaction does not vary by school level. This information may be helpful in recruitment of future school counselors. The majority of school counselors in this study were planning to continue in their position (76.4%; N = 964) while 10.6% (N = 134) were planning to retire or quit. Our finding that 13% (164) of school counselors were undecided in their career commitment suggests that efforts should be made to increase retention of school counselors. Given the financial and student-related cost of replacing school counselors, it would behoove be·hoove v. be·hooved, be·hoov·ing, be·hooves v.tr. To be necessary or proper for: It behooves you at least to try. v.intr. To be necessary or proper. school counselors and administrators to develop strategies to resolve school counselors' concerns and thus increase their job retention. ASCA National Model Duties Data analysis indicated that performing appropriate duties and inappropriate duties, as identified in the ASCA National Model, significantly influenced school counselors' satisfaction and commitment. Although the practical significance was small, Cohen cohen or kohen (Hebrew: “priest”) Jewish priest descended from Zadok (a descendant of Aaron), priest at the First Temple of Jerusalem. The biblical priesthood was hereditary and male. (1992) indicated that a small effect size does not mean it is trivial TRIVIAL. Of small importance. It is a rule in equity that a demurrer will lie to a bill on the ground of the triviality of the matter in dispute, as being below the dignity of the court. 4 Bouv. Inst. n. 4237. See Hopk. R. 112; 4 John. Ch. 183; 4 Paige, 364. . School counselor respondents who implemented appropriate duties more frequently were more satisfied and committed to their career while those who implemented inappropriate duties more frequently were more dissatisfied. This finding suggests that the frustration of not being able to implement appropriate duties significantly increases school counselors' career dissatisfaction. One possible explanation of school counselors' dissatisfaction with spending time "Spending Time" is the first single released by Christian artist Stellar Kart. The lyrics describe the band members desire to spend "more time with God". "Sometimes it’s a real struggle to spend time with God. on inappropriate duties is that those activities (e.g., administrative duties and testing) are classified by Holland (1997) as "conventional" in nature whereas counselors tend to prefer activities that are classified as "social" (e.g., counseling and consulting). It is important to note that the ASCA National Model does not appear to impede im·pede tr.v. im·ped·ed, im·ped·ing, im·pedes To retard or obstruct the progress of. See Synonyms at hinder1. [Latin imped school counselors' satisfaction or commitment but rather it increases their job satisfaction and commitment. Therefore, we recommend that school counselors collaborate with their district supervisors, principals, and school boards to develop strategies to implement the ASCA National Model. For example, some Florida school counselors and supervisors arranged for their school board to mandate that school counselors spend the percentages of time engaging in appropriate duties as recommended by Gysbers and Henderson (2000)--that is, 30% to 45% in counseling, 15% to 35% in classroom guidance, and so forth. Internal and External Motivational Factors Findings did reveal that school counselors had higher levels of self-efficacy for appropriate duties than inappropriate duties. Surprisingly, self-efficacy for performing appropriate duties was not found to be a positive predictor for school counselors' career satisfaction or career commitment. Rather, self-efficacy for inappropriate duties was a positive predictor for career satisfaction. This finding could be explained by Bandura's (1997) theory that self-efficacy even in things viewed as unpleasant leads to more satisfaction. Although school counselors may recognize that a task is an inappropriate duty, they may be less frustrated frus·trate tr.v. frus·trat·ed, frus·trat·ing, frus·trates 1. a. To prevent from accomplishing a purpose or fulfilling a desire; thwart: if they feel effective in performing it. Nevertheless, we recommend that school counselors focus on increasing their self-efficacy for appropriate duties by obtaining continuing education continuing education: see adult education. continuing education or adult education Any form of learning provided for adults. In the U.S. the University of Wisconsin was the first academic institution to offer such programs (1904). in counseling, consulting, and other appropriate duties; developing peer supervision groups; eliciting feedback from school staff; and, most importantly Adv. 1. most importantly - above and beyond all other consideration; "above all, you must be independent" above all, most especially , self-validating by focusing on their own strengths and accomplishments. Stress was found to be a negative predictor of career satisfaction and commitment for all school counselor respondents. This is consistent with Borg and Riding's (1991) finding that teachers who reported greater stress had less job satisfaction. Similarly, Eichinger (2000) found that special educators who had a balanced social role orientation had lower levels of stress and higher levels of job satisfaction. School counselors' stress and lower career satisfaction may be related to frustration of not performing the desired amount of social-oriented duties such as counseling and consulting. Thus, we recommend school counselors implement stress management techniques such as developing a personal and professional mission statement that emphasizes counseling and consulting and aligning a·lign v. a·ligned, a·lign·ing, a·ligns v.tr. 1. To arrange in a line or so as to be parallel: align the tops of a row of pictures; aligned the car with the curb. daily activities accordingly (Gentry, Baggerly, & Baranowsky, 2004). Given that "compassion fatigue compassion fatigue, n emotional drain experienced by caregivers us-ually after caring for another with a progressive illness. " (i.e., a disturbing preoccupation pre·oc·cu·pa·tion n. 1. The state of being preoccupied; absorption of the attention or intellect. 2. Something that preoccupies or engrosses the mind: Money was their chief preoccupation. with students' trauma to the point of traumatizing counselors and causing burnout Burnout Depletion of a tax shelter's benefits. In the context of mortgage backed securities it refers to the percentage of the pool that has prepaid their mortgage. ) is an occupational hazard occupational hazard n. a danger or risk inherent in certain employments or workplaces, such as deep-sea diving, cutting timber, high-rise steel construction, high-voltage electrical wiring, use of pesticides, painting bridges, and many factories. in counseling, school counselors must be diligent dil·i·gent adj. Marked by persevering, painstaking effort. See Synonyms at busy. [Middle English, from Old French, from Latin d in managing their stress through compassion-fatigue resiliency The ability to recover from a failure. The term may be applied to hardware, software or data. skills, such as maintaining a non-anxious presence and increasing self-validation and support networks (Baggerly & Gentry, 2004; Gentry et al.). Supervision by a district supervisor and peers positively predicted school counselors' career satisfaction. This finding may be explained by the Theory of Work Adjustment (Dawis, 1996; Lofquist & Dawis, 1978), in which people achieve job satisfaction when their needs are met with corresponding occupational reinforcers. For example, school counselors who need and highly value personal contact with a district supervisor will be most satisfied when that need is reinforced with desired personal contact, but less satisfied if a different occupational reinforcer reinforcer /re·in·forc·er/ (-in-for´ser) any stimulus that produces reinforcement, a positive r. being a desirable event strengthening responses preceding its occurrence and a negative r. , such as prestige, is offered instead. Therefore, we recommend that school counselors become proactive in developing strategies to obtain more supervision from peers and district supervisors through phone calls, group meetings, requesting designated regional supervisors, and so forth. Limitations The first limitation of this study is that it was conducted in Florida, and the results may not generalize generalize /gen·er·al·ize/ (-iz) 1. to spread throughout the body, as when local disease becomes systemic. 2. to form a general principle; to reason inductively. to other states, due to differences in factors that impact career satisfaction such as political climate and mandated standardized testing. Second, because African American and high school counselor respondents were somewhat underrepresented un·der·rep·re·sent·ed adj. Insufficiently or inadequately represented: the underrepresented minority groups, ignored by the government. in this survey when compared to school counselors statewide (Baggerly, 2002), the results may not be representative of all school counselors' career satisfaction and commitment. In addition, only one counselor per school completed a survey and may not represent activities and perceptions of other counselors in their setting. Third, the data showed a restriction in range, toward positive responses, for several factors including career commitment, career satisfaction, and self-efficacy. Consequently, correlation values tended to be small, whereas if there were more dissatisfied counselors, correlation values may have been higher. Fourth, because 70% of the 79 counselors who planned to retire were 60 years old or younger and could be viewed as quitting, career commitment categories of "quitting" and "retiring" were recoded into one category. However, it is possible that counselors who are retiring after 30 years may be very different from younger counselors planning to quit. Therefore, correlations specific to the categories of "quitting" and "retiring" may have been masked A state of being disabled or cut off. . Fifth, in the regression analysis In statistics, a mathematical method of modeling the relationships among three or more variables. It is used to predict the value of one variable given the values of the others. For example, a model might estimate sales based on age and gender. , predictor variables were limited to survey items and thus were not a comprehensive representation of other possible predictor variables. For example, school counselors' salary or tenure may be expected to be a predictor variable for career satisfaction. However, this information was not solicited on the survey. Finally, no reliability or validity data are available on any of the measures used in this study. Future Directions Based on these limitations, recommendations for future studies are as follows. First, a national survey of school counselors is needed to identify national and regional factors that impact career satisfaction and commitment. Second, the impact of stress reduction on school counselors' career satisfaction should be investigated. Third, the impact of supervision frequency, qualifications (i.e., school district supervisor versus licensed mental health counselor A mental health counselor is a professional who provides counseling to individuals, couples, families, groups, or larger systems. A mental health counselor may also have training in educational and vocational counseling (MacCluskie & Ingersoll 2001). ), and format (i.e., phone, Web-cam, individual, or group) on career satisfaction will be helpful in guiding supervisors. Finally, measuring the career satisfaction of school counselors who are implementing the ASCA National Model versus those who are not would be another important area to investigate. Conclusion School counselors may be able to increase their career satisfaction and career commitment by (a) increasing the provision of appropriate duties and decreasing inappropriate duties as identified in the ASCA National Model, (b) obtaining more supervision from a district supervisor and peers, and (c) managing their stress. School administrators should promote school counselors' career satisfaction by providing clerical assistance where needed and supporting school counselors' implementation of the ASCA National Model. Educating administrators on the ASCA National Model may increase their support for counselors to spend time on appropriate duties rather than on inappropriate duties such as paperwork. When school counselors enhance their career satisfaction, they may be more effective career role models for students by demonstrating enjoyment in their profession and thus exhibiting a healthier personal well-being. When school counselors increase their career commitment, students may benefit by having consistency in the counseling services they receive and thus potentially increasing their academic, career, and personal/social success. As school counselors demonstrate more career satisfaction and commitment, retention and recruitment of new school counselors may increase, thereby ultimately enhancing the school counseling profession. References American School Counselor Association. (2002). The ASCA national model: A framework for school counseling programs. Alexandria, VA: Author. Andrew, J. D., Faubion, C. W., & Palmer, C. D. (2002).The relationship between counselor satisfaction and job factors in state rehabilitation agencies. 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Table 1. Means and Standard Deviations of Career Satisfaction,
Duties, Self-Efficacy, Supervision, and Stress
N Mean Standard Deviation
All levels
Career satisfaction 1,274 3.20 .79
Appropriate duties 1,244 2.05 .36
Inappropriate duties 1,244 1.85 .57
Efficacy: appropriate duties 1,250 3.19 .56
Efficacy: inappropriate duties 1,249 2.44 .75
Supervision (district) 1,227 2.13 1.27
Supervision (peer) 1,220 2.48 1.61
Stress 1,233 3.34 .75
Elementary school
Career satisfaction 803 3.23 .80
Appropriate duties 776 2.01 .36
Inappropriate duties 776 1.71 .54
Efficacy: appropriate duties 785 3.10 .55
Efficacy: inappropriate duties 783 2.30 .79
Supervision (district) 771 2.03 1.23
Supervision (peer) 766 2.32 1.48
Stress 772 3.27 .78
Middle school
Career satisfaction 258 3.17 .75
Appropriate duties 255 2.10 .35
Inappropriate duties 255 2.17 .59
Efficacy: appropriate duties 253 3.32 .51
Efficacy: inappropriate duties 254 2.70 .73
Supervision (district) 252 2.14 1.23
Supervision (peer) 251 2.62 1.75
Stress 250 3.46 .61
High school
Career satisfaction 204 3.15 .83
Appropriate duties 204 2.11 .35
Inappropriate duties 204 1.98 .45
Efficacy: appropriate duties 203 3.35 .56
Efficacy: inappropriate duties 203 2.65 .72
Supervision (district) 195 2.48 1.40
Supervision (peer) 194 2.96 1.83
Stress 202 3.46 .73
Note. Satisfaction: 1 = very dissatisfied; 4 = very satisfied.
Duties: 1 = least time; 4 = most time.
Efficacy: 1 = low; 4 = very high.
Supervision: 1 = never; 2 = yearly; 3 = quarterly; 4 = monthly;
5 = weekly.
Stress: 1 = much less stressful; 4 = much more stressful.
Table 2. Regressions Testing Specific Predictors of Career
Satisfaction and Career Commitment
Analysis [beta] SE [R.sup.2] t
Analysis 1: .16
Career satisfaction
.391 .064 6.15 ***
-.303 .043 -7.10 ***
.003 .043 .065
.086 .032 2.71 *
.040 .018 2.26 *
.027 .014 1.94 *
-.285 .029 -9.81 ***
Analysis 2: .025
Career commitment
.180 .057 3.15 **
-.072 .038 -1.89
-.061 .039 -1.59
.033 .029 1.17
-.007 .016 -.45
.022 .012 1.79
-.086 .026 -3.32 **
Analysis [DELTA] F Criterion Variable
[R.sup.2]
Analysis 1: 31.77 ***
Career satisfaction
.028 Appropriate duties
.037 Inappropriate duties
.000 Efficacy appropriate
.006 Efficacy inappropriate
.004 Supervision district
.003 Supervision peer
.069 Stress
Analysis 2: 4.30 **
Career commitment
.008 Appropriate duties
.003 Inappropriate duties
.002 Efficacy appropriate
.001 Efficacy inappropriate
.000 Supervision district
.003 Supervision peer
.009 Stress
* p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.
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