Safety climate and safety behaviour.Abstract: This paper provides an overview of a research program examining the antecedents and consequences of safety climate and safety behaviour. A model is presented identifying the linkages between safety climate, safety knowledge, safety motivation, and safety behaviour. Findings from a series of studies are reviewed that support the hypothesized linkages between safety climate and safety behaviour. Longitudinal lon·gi·tu·di·nal adj. Running in the direction of the long axis of the body or any of its parts. analyses have examined the role of additional factors, such as general organisational climate, supportive leadership and conscientiousness con·sci·en·tious adj. 1. Guided by or in accordance with the dictates of conscience; principled: a conscientious decision to speak out about injustice. 2. as sources of stability and change in safety climate and safety behaviour. Further developments of the model, aimed at integrating safety behaviour into broader models of work effectiveness, are also discussed. Keywords: SAFETY CLIMATE; SAFETY BEHAVIOUR. 1. Introduction Safety is a major concern for organisations, being the source of substantial direct and indirect costs Indirect costs are costs that are not directly accountable to a particular function or product; these are fixed costs. Indirect costs include taxes, administration, personnel and security costs. See also
n. 1. A death resulting from an accident or disaster. 2. One that is killed as a result of such an occurrence. , permanent disability, or serious temporary disability in Australia. More than one million working weeks were lost in 1996--1997 from recorded workers compensation claims, with the direct cost estimated at $4.9 billion. The indirect costs are thought to be substantially higher. Major disasters, such as the Longford gas explosion in Australia and Piper Alpha The Piper Alpha was a North Sea oil production platform operated by Occidental Petroleum (Caledonia) Ltd.[1] It accounted for around ten per cent of the oil and gas production from the North Sea at the time. in the North Sea, have increased awareness of the importance of factors such as safety climate, and the long-term Long-term Three or more years. In the context of accounting, more than 1 year. long-term 1. Of or relating to a gain or loss in the value of a security that has been held over a specific length of time. Compare short-term. impact that these tragedies can have on organisations and the communities in which these organisations are based (Reason 1997). Consequently, there is an increasing recognition within industry of the need to manage safety on a proactive basis in order to improve safety for individuals at work and prevent significant financial loss (Frick, Jensen, Quinlan & Wilthagen 2000; Parker, Axtell & Turner 2001). Until recently, relatively little attention had been paid to safety within the organisational behaviour literature. Although there is a substantial body of research focusing on concepts of safety climate and safety culture, the vast majority of this research was published in specialist safety journals (Griffin & Kabanoff 2001). The research has not been integrated with related constructs in organisational behaviour, and has tended to focus on issues surrounding sur·round tr.v. sur·round·ed, sur·round·ing, sur·rounds 1. To extend on all sides of simultaneously; encircle. 2. To enclose or confine on all sides so as to bar escape or outside communication. n. the conceptualisation (artificial intelligence) conceptualisation - The collection of objects, concepts and other entities that are assumed to exist in some area of interest and the relationships that hold among them. and operationalisation of safety climate or culture. For example, the literature has focused on the factor structure of safety climate measures, and the differences, if any, between safety climate and safety culture (Flin, Mearns, O'Conner & Bryden 2000; Hale 2000). Less progress has been made in understanding the mechanisms by which safety climate or safety culture affect safety behaviour, and the relationship between these constructs and other variables. For example, we know surprisingly little about factors that create safe working climates, and the impact that these climates have on individual behaviour. The current paper provides an overview of a research program that is examining the antecedents and consequences of safety behaviour at work. We are examining the impact of organisational factors, such as safety climate, general organisational climate and leadership, as well as individual differences in knowledge, skill, motivation, and personality. Furthermore, this work is examining the relationship between safety behaviour and other behaviours that contribute to effectiveness in the workplace, in order to produce an integrated model of work performance and effectiveness. 2. Prior Safety Climate Research The term psychological climate refers to individual perceptions of the work environment (James & James 1989). When these perceptions are shared by individuals within a work group or organisation, they are referred to as `group climate' or `organisational climate'. Aspects of the work environment typically assessed by climate measures include organisational policies, procedures, practices (Reichers & Schneider 1990). Specific types of climate reflect perceptions of different facets of the work environment, such as service (Schneider, White & Paul 1998), innovation (West & Anderson Anderson, river, Canada Anderson, river, c.465 mi (750 km) long, rising in several lakes in N central Northwest Territories, Canada. It meanders north and west before receiving the Carnwath River and flowing north to Liverpool Bay, an arm of the Arctic 1996), and safety (Griffin & Neal 2000a; Zohar 1980). The term safety climate, therefore, refers to perceptions of policies, procedures, and practices relating to relating to relate prep → concernant relating to relate prep → bezüglich +gen, mit Bezug auf +acc safety in the workplace. The term safety culture, on the other hand, refers to `the attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions shared by natural groups as defining norms and values, which determine how they react in relation to risks and risk control systems' (Hale 2000). The concept of safety culture, therefore, is broader than safety climate, and incorporates a number of additional constructs, such as attitudes, values and behaviour. To date, the safety climate literature has tended to focus on two major issues: the factor structure of safety climate, and the relationship between safety climate and outcome variables. A number of different measures of safety climate have been developed by researchers working in this field (e.g. Cox & Cheyne Cheyne , John 1777-1836. Scottish physician who described (1818) the breathing irregularity now known as Cheyne-Stokes respiration. 2000; Hayes, Peranda, Smecko & Trask 1998; Zohar 1980). Unfortunately, these measures have produced a wide range of different factor structures, and there is currently no consensus regarding the key dimensions of safety climate. Regardless of the precise structure of safety climate, however, prior research has demonstrated that perceptions of safety climate are positively associated with safety compliance and negatively associated with accidents at the individual, group and organisational levels of analysis (Brown & Holmes 1986; Hayes, et al. 1998; Hofmann & Stetzer 1996; Rundmo 1994; Varonen & Mattila 2000; Zohar 2000). Some limitations of current approaches to safety climate can be identified. First, many of the safety climate measures that have been used confound con·found tr.v. con·found·ed, con·found·ing, con·founds 1. To cause to become confused or perplexed. See Synonyms at puzzle. 2. climate with attitudes and behaviour. For example, many safety climate measures include questions assessing whether the respondent In Equity practice, the party who answers a bill or other proceeding in equity. The party against whom an appeal or motion, an application for a court order, is instituted and who is required to answer in order to protect his or her interests. is involved in safety activities (e.g. Cox & Cheyne 2000; Dedobbeleer & Beland 1991). Our approach defines employee involvement activities as safety behaviours, which are distinct from perceptions of safety climate in an organisation. A number of measures also include questions assessing individual attitudes, such as fatalism fa·tal·ism n. 1. The doctrine that all events are predetermined by fate and are therefore unalterable. 2. Acceptance of the belief that all events are predetermined and inevitable. , personal responsibility for safety, and skepticism skepticism (skĕp`tĭsĭzəm) [Gr.,=to reflect], philosophic position holding that the possibility of knowledge is limited either because of the limitations of the mind or because of the inaccessibility of its object. (Mearns, Flin, Gordon & Fleming Flem·ing , Sir Alexander 1881-1955. British bacteriologist who discovered penicillin in 1928. He shared a 1945 Nobel Prize for this achievement. 1998; Niskanen 1994; Williamson, Feyer, Cairns Cairns, city (1991 pop. 64,463), Queensland, NE Australia, on Trinity Bay. It is a principal sugar port of Australia; lumber and other agricultural products are also exported. The city's proximity to the Great Barrier Reef has made it a tourist center. & Biancotti 1997; Varonen & Mattila 2000). Our approach differentiates attitudes both from individual behaviours and from perceptions of safety climate. Although measures of attitudes, behaviour, and climate have conceptual similarities, we argue that meaningful relationships among these constructs will be obscured if they are combined into a single global measure. Second, the safety climate literature has been dominated by cross-sectional studies cross-sectional study n. See synchronic study. cross-sectional study, n the scientific method for the analysis of data gathered from two or more samples at one point in time. . To our knowledge, no studies have examined the link between safety climate and safety behaviour or accidents over time. Finally, relatively little is known about the contribution of other organisational factors to safety climate and safety behaviour. For example, current research provides relatively little insight into the factors that help to create and maintain safe working climates, or the way in which environmental factors may interact with individual differences. 3. A Model of Safety Climate and Safety Behaviour Our research has focused on the development of a model of safety climate and safety behaviour that draws on existing theories of work performance (Borman & Motowidlo 1993; Campbell, Gasser Gas·ser , Herbert Spencer 1888-1963. American physiologist. He shared a 1944 Nobel Prize for research on the functions of nerve fibers. & Oswald 1996; Neal & Griffin 1997; Neal & Griffin 1999). This model makes a distinction between the components, determinants and antecedents of performance (see fig. 1). The components of performance represent the behaviours that individuals perform at work. Drawing on Borman and Motowidlo's (1993) definition of task and contextual performance, we differentiate between two types of safety behaviour: safety compliance and safety participation. The term safety compliance is used to describe the core activities that need to be carried out by individuals to maintain workplace safety. These behaviours include adhering ADHERING. Cleaving to, or joining; as, adhering to the enemies of the United States. 2. The constitution of the United States, art. 3, s 3, defines treason against the United States, to consist only in levying war against them or in adhering to their enemies, to standard work procedures and wearing personal protective equipment. The term safety participation is used to describe behaviours that do not directly contribute to an individual's personal safety, but which do help to develop an environment that supports safety. These behaviours include activities such as participating in voluntary safety activities, helping coworkers with safety-related issues, and attending safety meetings. [FIGURE 1 OMITTED] The determinants of performance represent factors that are directly responsible for individual differences in behaviour. Campbell et al. (1996) have argued that there are only three determinants of individual differences in performance: knowledge, skill and motivation. If an individual does not have sufficient knowledge and skill to comply with safety regulations or participate in safety activities, then she or he will not be capable of performing these actions. If the individual does not have sufficient motivation to comply with safety regulations or participate in safety activities, then she or he will not choose to carry out these actions. The antecedents of performance represent the factors that affect behaviour through their effects on knowledge, skill and motivation. There is a wide range of individual and environmental factors that are known to affect work behaviour, including ability, personality, and organisational climate (Neal & Griffin 1999). This model suggests that safety climate is one of many potential antecedents of safety behaviour. Other factors that are likely to be important include supportive leadership and conscientiousness. Barling and Zacharatos (1999) have argued that leadership is one of the critical organisational determinants of safety. Leaders are argued to play an important role in shaping the safety climate within an organisation, and motivating employees to perform their tasks safely (see also Hofmann & Morgeson 1999; Zohar 2000). Conscientiousness has been found to be an important predictor of a wide range of employee behaviours, including both task and contextual performance (e.g. Barrick, Stewart & Piotrowski 2002; Borman, Penner, Allen Al·len , Edgar 1892-1943. American anatomist who is noted for his studies of hormones and for the discovery (1923) of estrogen. & Motowidlo 2001). For these reasons, we would expect that conscientiousness would also predict safety compliance and participation. 4. Research Program Investigating the Model The model of safety climate and safety performance presented in figure 1 has been tested in a number of contexts. Two separate studies have demonstrated that perceptions of safety climate can be differentiated from perceptions of knowledge and motivation, and from self-reported safety compliance and participation (Griffin & Neal 2000a; Neal, Griffin & Hart 2000). Furthermore, these studies have demonstrated that knowledge and motivation mediate MEDIATE, POWERS. Those incident to primary powers, given by a principal to his agent. For example, the general authority given to collect, receive and pay debts due by or to the principal is a primary power. the relationship between safety climate and self-reported safety compliance and participation. Neal et al. (2000) also demonstrated that perceptions of safety climate were correlated cor·re·late v. cor·re·lat·ed, cor·re·lat·ing, cor·re·lates v.tr. 1. To put or bring into causal, complementary, parallel, or reciprocal relation. 2. with perceptions of general psychological climate, and that safety climate mediated me·di·ate v. me·di·at·ed, me·di·at·ing, me·di·ates v.tr. 1. To resolve or settle (differences) by working with all the conflicting parties: the relationship between general psychological climate and safety behaviour. These findings suggest that general psychological climate provides a context in which individuals evaluate the safety of their work environment. Griffin and Neal (2000a) also examined the hierarchical structure See hierarchical. of safety climate perceptions. James and James (1989) argue that individuals evaluate specific features of their work environment in terms of their personal values and the significance of those features for their overall well being. According to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. this argument, perceptions of different facets of the work environment should load onto a common higher order factor. Griffin and Neal (2000a), therefore, argued that the different dimensions of safety climate should be conceptualised as first-order factors, which in turn should load onto a higher-order factor. The first order factors should reflect perceptions of safety-related policies, procedures and practices, while the higher-order factor should reflect the extent to which employees believe that safety is valued in the organisation. As predicted, Griffin and Neal (2000a) found that questions assessing perceptions of management values, safety communication, safety practices, safety training and safety equipment loaded onto five separate first-order factors, which in turn loaded onto a higher order factor. This hierarchical model In a hierarchical data model, data are organized into a tree-like structure. The structure allows repeating information using parent/child relationships: each parent can have many children but each child only has one parent. provides a basis for resolving many of the discrepancies in reported factor Reported factor The pool factor as reported by the bond buyer for a given amortization period. structures for safety climate measures. The items used in the various safety climate measures differ in their level of specificity. Some measures include items that assess perceptions of specific policies, practices and procedures, whereas other measures include items that assess more global perceptions of safety climate. The hierarchical model developed by Griffin and Neal (2000a) suggests that measures that include items that assess perceptions of specific policies, procedures and practices should produce a larger number of factors than measures that provide indicators of the global value placed on safety in the workplace. The longitudinal research program conducted by the authors continues to examine the relationships among safety climate, safety behaviour and range of individual and organisational factors. Over the previous five years, the Years, The the seven decades of Eleanor Pargiter’s life. [Br. Lit.: Benét, 1109] See : Time research program has investigated links with organisational measures of overall climate and supportive leadership. Further work has examined the role of individual measures of commitment, conscientiousness, and extraversion extraversion /ex·tra·ver·sion/ (ek?strah-ver´zhun) extroversion. extraversion see extroversion. , and the organisational outcomes of workplace accidents. The longitudinal design supports the aim of identifying the sources of stability and change in safety-related factors, and identifying the direction of causation causation Relation that holds between two temporally simultaneous or successive events when the first event (the cause) brings about the other (the effect). According to David Hume, when we say of two types of object or event that “X causes Y” (e.g. for the observed relationships. Based on the overall model of safety (Neal & Griffin 1997; Neal & Griffin 1998; Griffin & Neal 2000a), research papers have reported a variety of longitudinal relationships among the key factors. Supportive leadership has been found to exert a lagged effect on safety climate, whereas conscientiousness has been found to exert a lagged effect on safety motivation, compliance and participation (Griffin, Burley bur·ley n. pl. bur·leys A light-colored tobacco grown chiefly in Kentucky and used especially in making cigarettes. [Probably from the name Burley.] & Neal 2000). Additionally, safety compliance and participation have been found to have a lagged effect on accidents at the group level of analysis (Griffin & Neal 2000b). Measurement issues play a key role in the implementation of the research program. Testing a comprehensive model of safety climate and behaviour requires the collection of data from multiple sources and multiple levels of analysis. Integrating multiple data sources in a field setting requires coordination among a variety of organisational stakeholders Stakeholders All parties that have an interest, financial or otherwise, in a firm-stockholders, creditors, bondholders, employees, customers, management, the community, and the government. whose understanding and commitment to the research is essential for ongoing success (Griffin, Hart & Wilson-Evered 2000). Furthermore, data collected at the individual, group, and organisation levels requires appropriate modelling procedures that address the multilevel mul·ti·lev·el adj. Having several levels: a multilevel parking garage. Adj. 1. multilevel - of a building having more than one level structure of the data (Hofmann, Griffin & Gavin 2000; Griffin, Mathieu & Jacobs 2001). 5. Implications and Further Developments Our model of safety climate and safety behaviour has a number of implications for practice. One of the major implications relates to the way in which practitioners think about the determinants of safety. In the past, safety interventions have tended to focus on increasing compliance with safety regulations. An implicit assumption that is often made is that compliance problems are caused by poor safety attitudes. For this reason, many of the safety programs that are implemented in industry have used techniques such as feedback and incentives to change the instrumentality Instrumentality Notes issued by a federal agency whose obligations are guaranteed by the full-faith-and-credit of the government, even though the agency's responsibilities are not necessarily those of the US government. or valence Valence, city, France Valence (väläNs`), city (1990 pop. 65,026), capital of Drôme dept., SE France, in Dauphiné, on the Rhône River. of noncompliance noncompliance failure of the owner to follow instructions, particularly in administering medication as prescribed; a cause of a less than expected response to treatment. noncompliance . Our model suggests that managers should think about participation as well as compliance, and identify the antecedents and determinants of these behaviours. If an organisation has a problem with poor compliance or participation, then it is important to understand why, and target the intervention A procedure used in a lawsuit by which the court allows a third person who was not originally a party to the suit to become a party, by joining with either the plaintiff or the defendant. to the particular set of antecedents and determinants that are sustaining the problem (Neal & Griffin, in press). For example, if the problem is caused by a lack of knowledge or skill, then this suggests that the manager should focus on training, and possibly selection. If the problem is caused by motivation, then there is a broad range of individual and environmental factors that could be the cause of the problem, including leadership, climate and work design, as well as individual attitudes or personality. Furthermore, if a manager is trying to change one particular behaviour, then she or he needs to consider how that intervention will affect other safety behaviours. For example, if she or he is trying to make employees more motivated mo·ti·vate tr.v. mo·ti·vat·ed, mo·ti·vat·ing, mo·ti·vates To provide with an incentive; move to action; impel. mo to comply with safety procedures, then it is important to evaluate whether the intervention will adversely affect motivation to engage in participatory safety activities. Feedback and incentive systems that focus on compliance run the risk of reducing the valence or instrumentality of participation. The research program described above is being integrated with a related program investigating individual performance and organisational effectiveness. This latter project aims to provide a more comprehensive map of the individual behaviours that constitute effective performance in organisations (Neal & Griffin 1999). In addition to distinguishing task and contextual performance (Griffin, Neal, & Neale 2000), the project is developing a model that differentiates individual behaviours in terms of the level of analysis at which the behaviour is observed and the kind of change that results from the behaviour (Griffin, Parker & Neal 2001). Safety is an important part of this model. Like customer service behaviours, which have received a great deal of attention in recent years, safety behaviours can be considered a specific domain of performance. Organisational factors such as organisational values (Maierhofer, Griffin & Sheehan 2000; Maierhofer, Kabanoff, & Griffin 2002) are being linked to safety outcomes as part of a broader model of work performance. Integrating safety into a more comprehensive model of performance is a further step on the path to bringing the topic of safety into mainstream organisational behaviour research. References Barling, J. & Zacharatos, A. 1999, `High performance safety systems: Management practices for achieving optimal safety performance', paper presented at the 25th annual meeting of the Academy of Management, Toronto. Barrick, M.R., Stewart, G.L. & Piotrowski, M. 2002, `Personality and job performance: Test of the mediating effects of motivation among sales representatives', Journal of Applied Psychology Journal of Applied Psychology is a publication of the APA. It has a high impact factor for its field. It typically publishes high quality empirical papers. www.apa. , vol. 87, pp. 43-51. Borman, W.C. & Motowidlo, S.J. 1993, `Expanding the criterion domain to include elements of contextual performance', in Personnel Selection in Organizations, eds. N. Schmitt & W.C. Borman and Asssociates, Jossey-Bass, San Fancisco. Borman, W.C., Penner, L.A., Allen, T.D. & Motowidlo, S.J. 2001, `Personality predictors of citizenship performance', International Journal of Selection & Assessment, vol. 9, pp. 52-69. Brown, R.L. & Holmes, H. 1986, `The use of a factor-analytic procedure for assessing the validity of an employee safety climate model', Accident Analysis and Prevention, vol. 18, no. 6, pp. 455-70. Campbell, J.P., Gasser, M.B. & Oswald, F.L. 1996, `The substantive nature of performance variability', in Individual Differences and Behavior in Organizations, ed. K.R. Murphy, Jossey-Bass, San Fancisco. Cox, S.J., & Cheyne, A.J.T. 2000, `Assessing safety culture in offshore environments', Safety Science, vol. 34, pp. 1-3. Dedobbeleer, N. & Beland, F. 1991, `A safety climate measure for construction sites', Journal of Safety Research, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 97-103. Flin, R., Mearns, K., O'Conner, P. & Bryden, R. 2000, `Measuring safety climate: Identifying the common features', Safety Science, vol. 34, pp. 177-92. Frick, K., Jensen, P.J., Quinlan, M. & Wilthagen, T. eds. 2000, Systematic Occupational Health and Safety Management, Pergamon Press, New York New York, state, United States New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of . Griffin, M.A., Burley, N. & Neal, A. August, 2000, `The impact of supportive leadership and conscientiousness on safety at work', paper presented at the 25th annual meeting of the Academy of Management, Toronto. Griffin, M.A., Hart, P.M. & Wilson-Evered, E. 2000, `Using employee opinion surveys to improve organizational health', in Health and Productive Work: An International Perspective, eds. L.R. Murphy & C.L. Cooper, Taylor & Francis, London. Griffin, M.A. & Kabanoff, B. 2001, `Global vision: The psychology of safety', The Industrial/Organizational Psychologist psy·chol·o·gist n. A person trained and educated to perform psychological research, testing, and therapy. psychologist , vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 54-7. Griffin, M.A., Mathieu, J.E. & Jacobs, R.J. 2001, `Perceptions of work contexts: Disentangling effects at multiple levels of analysis', Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, vol. 74, pp. 563-79. Griffin, M.A. & Neal, A. 2000a, `Perceptions of safety at work: A framework for linking safety climate to safety performance, knowledge, and motivation', Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, vol. 5, pp. 347-58. Griffin, M.A. & Neal, A. May, 2000b, `Work group and individual influences on workplace accidents', paper presented at the 15th Annual conference of the Society for Industrial Psychology, New Orleans New Orleans (ôr`lēənz –lənz, ôrlēnz`), city (2006 pop. 187,525), coextensive with Orleans parish, SE La., between the Mississippi River and Lake Pontchartrain, 107 mi (172 km) by water from the river mouth; founded , Louisiana Louisiana (ləwē'zēăn`ə, l  ē'–), state in the S central United States. It is bounded by Mississippi, with the Mississippi R. .
Griffin, M.A., Neal, A. & Neale, M. 2000, `The contribution of task performance and contextual performance to effectiveness in Air Traffic Control: Investigating the role of situational constraints', Applied Psychology: An International Review, vol. 49, pp. 517-33. Griffin, M.A., Parker, S.K. & Neal, A. 2001, `An integrated model of work performance', paper presented at the 4th Australian Australian pertaining to or originating in Australia. Australian bat lyssavirus disease see Australian bat lyssavirus disease. Australian cattle dog a medium-sized, compact working dog used for control of cattle. conference in Industrial/Organisational Psychology. Hale, A.R. 2000, `Culture's confusions', Safety Science, vol. 34, pp. 1-3. Hayes, B.E., Peranda, J., Smecko, T. & Trask, J. 1998, `Measuring perceptions of workplace safety: Development and validation See validate. validation - The stage in the software life-cycle at the end of the development process where software is evaluated to ensure that it complies with the requirements. of the workplace safety scale', Journal of Safety Research, vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 145-61. Hofmann, D.A., Griffin, M.A. & Gavin, M. 2000, `The application of Hiearchical Linear Modelling to management research', in Multilevel Theory, Research, and Methods in Organizations, eds. K. Klein Klein , Melanie 1882-1960. Austrian-born British psychoanalyst who first introduced play therapy and was the first to use psychoanalysis to treat young children. & S. Kozlowski, Jossey Bass, San Francisco San Francisco (săn frănsĭs`kō), city (1990 pop. 723,959), coextensive with San Francisco co., W Calif., on the tip of a peninsula between the Pacific Ocean and San Francisco Bay, which are connected by the strait known as the Golden . Hofmann, D.A. & Morgeson, F.P. 1999, `Safety-related behavior as a social exchange: The role of perceived organizational support and leader-member exchange', Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 84, no. 2, pp. 286-96. Hofmann, D.A. & Stetzer, A. 1996, `A cross-level investigation of factors influencing unsafe behaviors and accidents', Personnel Psychology, vol. 49, no. 2, pp. 307-39. James, L.A. & James, L.R. 1989, `Integrating work environment perceptions: Explorations into the measurement of meaning', Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 74, no. 5, pp. 739-51. Maierhofer, N., Griffin, M.A. & Sheehan, M. 2000, `Organizational values and safety at work: The impact of manager values and behavior on employee values and behavior', Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, vol. 5, pp. 417-27. Maierhofer, N., Kabanoff, B. & Griffin, M.A. 2002, `The influence of values in organizations: Linking values and outcomes at multiple levels of analysis', in International Review of Industrial/Organizational Psychology, eds. C.L. Cooper & I.T. Robertson, vol. 17, Wiley, New York, pp. 217-64. Mearns, K., Flin, R., Gordon, R. & Fleming, M. 1998, `Measuring safety climate on offshore installations', Work and Stress, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 238-54. Neal, A. & Griffin, M.A. April, 1997, `Linking theories of work performance and safety climate', paper presented at the 12th Annual conference of the Society for Industrial Psychology, St. Louis, Missouri Missouri, state, United States Missouri (mĭz  r`ē, –ə), one of the midwestern states of the United States. .
Neal, A. & Griffin, M.A. August, 1998, `Safety climate and safety related behavior: An integrated model', paper presented at the 24th International Congress of Applied Psychology, San Francisco, California “San Francisco” redirects here. For other uses, see San Francisco (disambiguation). The City and County of San Francisco (EN IPA: [sænfrənˈsɪskoʊ] . Neal, A. & Griffin, M.A. 1999, `Developing a theory of performance for human resource management', Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources The fancy word for "people." The human resources department within an organization, years ago known as the "personnel department," manages the administrative aspects of the employees. , vol. 37, pp. 44-59. Neal, A. & Griffin, M.A. (in press), `Safety climate and safety at work', in The Psychology of Workplace Safety, eds. J. Barling & M. Frone, American Psychological Association The American Psychological Association (APA) is a professional organization representing psychology in the US. Description and history The association has around 150,000 members and an annual budget of around $70m. , Washington. Neal, A., Griffin, M.A. & Hart, P.M. 2000, `The impact of organizational climate The concept of organizational climate has been assessed by various authors, of which many of them published their own definition of organizational climate. Organizational climate, however, proves to be hard to define. on safety climate and individual behavior', Safety Science, vol. 34, pp. 99-109. Niskanen, T. 1994, `Assessing the safety environment in work organization of road maintenance jobs', Accident Analysis and Prevention, vol. 26, no. 1, pp. 27-39. Parker, S.K., Axtell, C.M. & Turner, N. 2001, `Designing a safer workplace: Importance of job autonomy, communication quality, and supportive supervisors', Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, vol. 6, pp. 211-28. Reason, J.T. 1997, Managing The Risks of Organizational Accidents, Aldershot, Hants, England. Reichers, A.E. & Schneider, B. 1990, `Climate and culture: An evolution of constructs', in Organizational climate and culture, ed. B. Schneider, San Francisco, Jossey-Bass, pp. 40-84. Rundmo, T. 1994, `Associations between organizational factors and safety and contingency contingency n. an event that might not occur. measures on offshore petroleum platforms', Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health, vol. 20, no. 2, pp. 122-7. Schneider, B., White, S.S. & Paul, M.C. 1998, `Linking service climate and customer perceptions of service quality: Tests of a causal causal /cau·sal/ (kaw´z'l) pertaining to, involving, or indicating a cause. causal relating to or emanating from cause. model', Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 83, no. 2, pp. 150-63. Varonen, U. & Mattila, M. 2000, `The safety climate and its relationship to safety practices, safety of the work environment and occupational accidents in eight wood-processing companies', Accident Analysis and Prevention, vol. 32, no. 6, pp. 761-9. West, M.A. & Anderson, N.R. 1996, `Innovation in top management teams', Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 81, no. 6, pp. 680-93. Williamson, A.M., Feyer, A.M., Cairns, D. & Biancotti, D. 1997, `The Development of a Measure of Safety Climate: The Role of Safety Perceptions and Attitudes', Safety Science, vol. 25, pp. 1-3. Zohar, D. 1980, `Safety climate in industrial organizations: Theoretical and applied implications', Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 65, no. 1, pp. 96-102. Zohar, D. 2000, `A group-level model of safety climate: Testing the effect of group climate on microaccidents in manufacturing jobs', Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 85, no. 4, pp. 587-96. (Date of receipt of final transcript A generic term for any kind of copy, particularly an official or certified representation of the record of what took place in a court during a trial or other legal proceeding. A transcript of record : April, 2002. Accepted by Sharon Parker and Robert Wood There are have been several people named Robert Wood:
Andrew Neal ([dagger]) Mark A. Griffin ([section]) ([dagger]) School of Psychology, The University of Queensland The University of Queensland (UQ) is the longest-established university in the state of Queensland, Australia, a member of Australia's Group of Eight, and the Sandstone Universities. It is also a founding member of the international Universitas 21 organisation. , Brisbane, QLD QLD or Qld Queensland 4072. Email: Andrew@psy.uq.edu.au ([section]) School of Management, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD 4001. Email: m.griffin@qut.edu.au Andrew Neal received his PhD in 1996 from The University of New South Wales The University of New South Wales, also known as UNSW or colloquially as New South, is a university situated in Kensington, a suburb in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. . His research focuses on human performance at work. Current research projects include the development and validation of an integrative model of work performance; an evaluation of training techniques designed to enhance adaptive expertise Adaptive expertise is a broad construct that encompasses a range cognitive, motivational, and personality-related components, as well as habits of mind and dispositions. Its empirical validity has been examined in a number of training and learning contexts. ; the development of computational models
Mark Griffin is Principal Research Fellow in the School of Management, Queensland University of Technology. Mark has consulted widely with organizations in Australia and internationally to assess and improve work effectiveness. His research has been published in a range of leading journals such as Academy of Management Journal, Journal of Management, Journal of Applied Psychology, Journal of Organizational Behavior, and Personnel Psychology. He received his Ph.D. in industrial/organisational psychology from the Pennsylvania State University Pennsylvania State University, main campus at University Park, State College; land-grant and state supported; coeducational; chartered 1855, opened 1859 as Farmers' High School. . His primary research focus is the link between well-being and organisational performance. Theoretical, practical, and methodological implications of this link have all been addressed in Mark's research and consulting. |
|
||||||||||||||||||||
Printer friendly
Cite/link
Email
Feedback
Reader Opinion