Role playing games for political science.

Abstract

This paper attends to issues that instructors want to be mindful of when considering simulations or role-plays for use in political science courses. The potential of these exercises are addressed. An annotated bibliography of role-playing games (RPGs) and simulations is included. The RPGs and simulations reviewed are those considered most appropriate for an American Government survey course.

Introduction and Definitions

Role Playing Games and Simulations are two different types of educational device with similarities. The more elaborate, complex games with more scenarios and interaction among the players are referred to as "simulations." Ellington, Gordon and Fowlie (1998), define simulations as "ongoing representations of real situations." Role-playing games typically involve less complex interaction. In role-playing, the players may interact by giving speeches to address a reality-based problem, but with only limited negotiations and resolutions. Both RPGs and simulations differ from case-based teaching which focuses on discussion of particular real situations, without active participation in representing the parties involved (Asal, 2005:360).

Evidence of Benefits

Although many practitioners of simulations and role-playing games report a higher level of interest and satisfaction among students (Dougherty, 2003; Courard-Hauri, 2004; Jansiewicz, 2004) few studies with control and experimental groups have been conducted to determine if the use of simulations in the classroom yields superior results in terms of student learning and retention. Two notable studies were initiated when simulations for educational purposes were still relatively new. First, Robinson, Anderson, Hermann and Snyder (1966) found only small differences between control and experimental groups when comparing the use of case studies to simulations. The difference in the level of interest among students was also quite small, though the authors attributed this to an already high level of interest among students. Thus, the presence of any differences at all may be regarded as significant (Robinson et al 1966, 65). Secondly, Elder early on saw the enthusiasm toward using simulations in the classroom as being without sound pedagogical criteria (Elder 1973:335). Students are often more content with familiar methods whereby they memorize facts (Graff, 2003). They may regard the observations of other students expressed in simulations as not worthy of their attention (Wheeler, 2006). Some students may lack the confidence to offer insights as they relate to the subject matter under study (Jansiewicz, 2004). Assurance and guidance from the instructor can help to alleviate some of these potential problems.

Nevertheless, the vast majority of reports on the use of RPGs and simulations, while acknowledging some shortcomings, have been quite positive. Exercises that require participation from students generate enthusiasm and a sense of control over one's learning (Dougherty, 2003; Courard-Hauri, 2004; Jansiewicz, 2004). Because a good simulation requires a high level of integration of the material, these types of interactive methods target more advanced levels of learning (Bloom, Englehart, Furst, Hill, and Krathwohl, 1956). Highly interactive sessions require communication and cooperation among students, allowing students to learn from each other's insights and build interpersonal skills (Dougherty, 2003). Some students prefer to check their interpretations of the material with other students in the more informal setting of small groups. The instructor should ideally be privy to these conversations as an evaluator of the process and should contribute to these exchanges when needed. The instructor is in a sense more immersed in the actually learning process because the students' interpretations and thought processes are more apparent (Hardy, Rachaway, Chapman and Sonnier, 2005). When it becomes apparent that a point is being obfuscated, the instructor can refocus learning in the desired direction. Group work can facilitate more communication throughout the rest of the course. Simulations involving role-playing can give students an opportunity to develop public speaking skills. If position papers are included as an associated assignment, writing skills may be enhanced (Courard-Hauri, 2004). Briefing papers on their assessment of the experience are ideal wrap-up assignments. In short, the instructor can better assess the student's level of understanding because role-plays and simulations demand more communication on the part of the student.

Fostering empathy for "the other" is another oft-cited benefit of role-plays. By taking on the role of someone in another circumstance, the student is forced to look more carefully at position and views held by those personated. Dougherty (2003) reports that in a simulation of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, the students were forced to familiarize themselves with the different sides of the disputes. Tse-Hei Lee (2005) suggests that simulations and role-plays encourage the rejection of the students' tendency to dehumanize the "enemy." Stereotypes of those involved fall to the side when one has to portray the individual within the framework held by the people depicted. However because they can hide behind the guise of the roles they are playing, role-plays allow students to voice views with less concern that they might offend others.

Active learning approaches are credited with helping students retain information for longer periods. In evaluating student retention of material in a Principles of Economics class, Frass (1982) found that for students who had never before taken an economics class and whose SAT scores were 800 or lower, simulations were more effective than a lecture-discussion format. The same study however found that students who had some prior formal education in Economic and had an SAT score higher than 800 retained more information from the lecture-discussion format (60). This suggests that the instructor should consider student backgrounds to optimize outcomes. In addition to the students' familiarity with the subject matter, other considerations that are important include: the number of students in the classroom and the level of the course. A simulation may fall flat in an introductory class with a large number of mostly non-majors, while meeting its objectives quite succinctly in an upper-level course of mostly majors.

Although students may be more enthused about elaborate scenarios where they play roles in countries with clever names that sound like they might be tribes on the next season of Survivor, simple role-plays may serve just as well. With a little creativity, a simple debate format can be made into a role-play by assigning students roles. For example if the topic is whether there should be a limit to how much of one's own money a candidate for Congress can spend on his/her own campaign, one team could propose an Amendment to that effect. Other students could play the part of the U.S. Supreme Court Justices who struck down the limits. 1 have made use of this format with six students on each team. The rest of the class assumes the role of reporters asking the "public officials" pointed questions. These "reporters" subsequently become debate judges when assigned to use critical thinking guidelines to write a two page decision determining which team won the debate. Because role-playing is an excellent venue for critical thinking, it is advisable to spend time reviewing basic principles of critical thinking. Students should be forewarned that faulty analogies, appeals to emotions such as fear and envy, and other such techniques are often persuasively, albeit dubiously, used. Their use should be "red flagged" for a critical discussion.

Debriefings

Debriefings are essential. A written assessment of the exercise can be used as a basis for this culminating exercise. It is crucial that a debriefing session take place soon after the conclusion of the role-play/simulation. Those individuals with more peripheral roles may have more difficulty perceiving the points grasped by those with more prominent roles. The debriefing period is the time to bring home the relevant concepts that you hope the simulations will draw out. Smith and Boyer (1996) aptly outline four types of questions that can be used for a student-centered debriefing. Included as their first point are "open ended questions that identify processes, goals, motivation, constraints and resources (693). The authors also suggest that the major players be interviewed about their goals, motivations and frustrations (693). It may be necessary in some cases to address how the simulation was not realistic. Smith and Boyer (1996) suggest putting forward the simple question, "In what ways did the simulation diverge from reality and in what ways was it similar to the real world?" (693). As an alternative to the instructor-led debriefing, Switky (2004:104) proposes that students begin the process in groups for 10 minutes. At the end of that period, the instructor calls on each group to present what they have concluded are the main points. The instructor can then cap the exercise by filling in any additional points.

A final logistical consideration is when to schedule interactive exercises during the semester. I have found that the longer ! wait to implement such active participation the more hesitant students are to undertake it. This holds true even if I've forewarned them in the syllabus of upcoming events. On the other hand it may make a great deal of pedagogical sense to wait until the second half of the course, after the fundamentals have been addressed and at least superficially absorbed. By waiting until the second half of the course, some students would also have developed a more cordial relationship with each other thus facilitating group work. In deciding this issue, the reasoning I find most compelling is that the objectives must fit the curriculum. If the simulation depicts an issue that is best addressed toward the end of the course, then by all means it is prudent to wait until the end of the semester. If you are intent on using many RPGs and simulations however one must keep in mind that some students need breaks between these exercises. They are not uniformly greeted with welcoming arms. Some students will feel overwhelmed if many of these exercises are reserved for the last weeks of the course. Building in small group exercises of short duration from the start of the course is also a good idea. This should encourage a level of comfort with group work thus aiding the success of more elaborate role-plays and simulations toward the end of the course.

Conclusion

Despite great efforts in the classroom, instructors cannot assume that students receive their intended messages. We must regularly seek out verification through engagement of students in the classroom. If students are more immersed in the course material, the instructor can more easily gauge how the material is being interpreted. If the students are the ones doing the talking, it is easier to assess what messages are being absorbed. RPGs and simulations can be seen as methods to facilitate feedback from students in terms of their level of comprehension. Although little scientific evidence is available to attest to increased retention or comprehension; anecdotal evidence in the form of published accounts by instructors who have used RPGs and simulations is quite abundant.

Resources for Role Plays and Simulations

Asal (2005) affirms that there is no clearinghouse for Role Play Games (RPGs) and simulations. To assist the novice considering these pedagogical tools, I have created an annotated bibliography of journal articles that best describes particular RPGs or simulations with sufficient detail to enable one to replicate or adapt them. I have included those that would fall under the rubric of the typical American Government course. Because it is essential that all students be actively engaged, I have included what I believe is the optimal number of students that could be accommodated in the exercise and in some cases I have indicated whether they would be best suited for introductory or more advanced classes.

Carnes, Mark C. (2004), The Liminal Classroom, Chronicle of Higher Education, 10/8/2004, 51 (7): 6-9.

   The Reacting to the Past series is detailed in this article. Many
   simulations are included with a variety of topics. Several recent
   titles could be utilized in an American Government course. These
   games are published by Longman Publishers. New games are in the
   works. A twenty-minute streamline video of a session at Barnard
   can be viewed from the Reacting to the Past home page
   (http://www.barnard.edu/reacting). Best suited for advanced
   classes of 25-45 students.

Ciliotta-Rubcry, Andrea and Levy, Dena (2000). Congressional Committee Simulation: An Active Learning Experiment. PS: Political Science and Politics. 33 (2): 847-851.

   Mock congressional legislative committees are formed among the
   students for two separate proposed bills. After students investigate
   the bills' topics, they are assigned personalities. These roles
   consist primarily of legislators who either support or oppose the
   bill, but a few lobbyists and other advocates for amendments to the
   bills are included. The simulation proceeds to resemble the
   processes of a legislative committee. For larger classes, more
   groups could operate in a parallel fashion on different bills in
   separate committees.

Cohen, Mel (1991). Making Class Participation a Reality. PS: Political Science and Politics 24 (4): 699-703.

   Taking just one or two class periods, the author suggests the
   arguing of freedom of expression court cases. Other resolved or
   yet unresolved cases could be substituted. This exercise could
   actively accommodate approximately 10-15 students maximum though
   the rest of the students can act as additional judges/justices.

Courard-Hauri, David (2004), Renegotiating Kyoto: a computer-aided role-play. Academic Exchange Quarterly, 8 (4):176-181.

   Fifteen in depth roles were created for this exercise. It is an
   exercise of negotiations for the limiting of greenhouse gases. Some
   of the interest groups represented are the Business Roundtable, the
   Farm Bureau, Greenpeace, Resources for the Future, The World Coal
   Institute and the World Wildlife Fund. Other countries are also
   represented. Ideally suited for 20-40 students.

Endersby, James W. and Webber, David J. (1995). Iron Triangle Simulation: A Role-Playing Game for Undergraduates in Congress, Interest Groups, and Public Policy Classes. PS: Political Science and Politics, 28 (3): 520-523.

   A 14 weeklong project that culminates in an extensive legislative
   session, conducted over a weekend is detailed. Students choose
   their roles from a list constructed by the instructor. Roles
   include legislators, and members of interest groups. Students
   propose their own (numerous) pieces of legislation and strategize
   to achieve their passage. Suitable for introductory or advanced
   level classes of 30-65 students.

Hardy, Richard J., Rackaway, Chapman and Sonnier, Laurie E. (2005). In the Supreme Court Justices' Shoes: Critical Thinking Through the Use of Hypothetical Case Law

   Analyses and Interactive Simulations. PS: Political Science &
   Politics 38 (3): 411-414. The authors' use of hypothetical cases
   forces students to find their own material to argue the cases
   before their peers. It is suggested that other students be
   assigned to play actual present or past Supreme Court Justices
   in order to require the students to investigate past decisions
   of those individuals. Three hypothetical cases are outlined--each
   dealing with Bill of Rights issues. Such simulations could
   actively involve 20-25 students.

Hensley, Thomas R. (1993). Come to the Edge: Role Playing Activities in a Constitutional Law Class, PS: Political Science and Politics, 26: (1) 64-68.

   The author thoroughly describes several examples of role-plays
   he has used for a junior/senior level seminar in civil liberties.
   The activities are explained with enough detail to enable the
   reader to replicate the exercises. Suitable for upper-level courses
   of 20-50 students.

Jansiewicz, Donald (2004), The Game of Politics Simulations: Classroom and Civic Education Applications. Paper presented at the Midwestern Political Science Association 2004 Annual Meeting, Chicago, IL.

   Contains both macro and micro simulations. The macro simulation
   is best suited to survey courses of 15-75 participants. The micro
   simulations are best suited to upper level or highly specialized
   classes The five micro simulations focus on committee
   decision-making (for 4-12 players), the overall legislative process
   (19-52) the dynamics of presidential decision-making (5-8) the
   politics of Supreme Court decision-making (8-16) and the national
   budgetary process (7-12). More information can be obtained from
   www.gameofpolitics.com.

Josefson, Jim and Casey, Kelly (2000). Simulating Issue Networks in Small Classes Using the World Wide Web. PS: Political Science & Politics, 33 (4):843-846.

   Simulating processes associated with the reauthorization of the
   Endangered Species Act, the class is divided in to seven groups
   representing members of key committees in the House and Senate,
   representatives from the Department of the Interior, the White House
   and coalitions of interest groups. Each group creates a Legislative
   Strategy Brief outlining their stand and their strategy to
   accomplish their goals. As outlined, the simulation could
   accommodate small as well as larger classes--ranging from 15 to 50
   students.

Kaarbo, J. and Lantis, J. S. (1997). "Coalition Theory in Praxis: A Comparative Politics Simulation of the Cabinet Formation Process." PS: Political Science and Politics 30 (3): 501-506.

   Given that a major theme of American Government courses is to learn
   the effects of institutional design, the simulation detailed here
   would serve such a course well. The relevant background for the
   Kingdom of Oceania is supplied along with the essential components
   of the Kingdom's six major parties. This simulation could be
   conducted with a relatively large introductory class with up to
   100 students.

Naidu, S.; Ip, A. and Linser, R. (2000). Dynamic Goal-Based Role-Play Simulation on the Web: A Case Study. Educational Technology & Society 3 (3) ISSN 1436-4522 http://ifets.ieee.org/periodical/vol_3_2000/b05.html

   This article illustrates elaborate simulations along with their
   online components and how a Role-Play Simulation Generator (RPSG)
   facilitates the creation of such complex simulations. It is
   claimed that the RPSG allows instructors to design and implement a
   web-based simulation quite easily by simply navigating through a
   Website. A framework of these simulations is viewable at
   http://www.fablusi.com/vl/default2. asp? simID=sim000043 with a
   username of guest and the password demonstration. This website may
   serve as a model for advanced students of Political Science with a
   creative streak that also have a penchant for computer systems. An
   endeavor such as this might serve well as a culminating project or
   thesis. Such simulations could theoretically accommodate any number
   of students in courses of various levels.

Reitano, Richard and Elfenbein, Caleb (1997). American Government: a comparative approach. PS: Political Science & Politics 30 (3): 540-552.

   Two simulations: Coalition Building and The Making of a Party
   Platform Plank are included as part of the wider focus of this
   article. The topic of the latter simulation is quite current:
   immigration policy. Both simulations could accommodate a large
   range of students: 20-60.

Ringle, Lewis S. (2004). Designing a Moot Court: What to Do, What Not to Do, and Suggestions for How to Do it. PS: Political Science and Politics 37 (2): 459-465.

   Issues such as picking a case, integrating modern communication
   technology and preparing and motivating students are addressed.
   Appropriate for advanced classes of 20-30 students.

Smith, E. and Boyer, Mark (1996). Designing In-Class Simulations. PS: Political Science & Politics 29 (4): 690-694.

   A comprehensive guide to creating simulations, including advice in
   what to include in the role profiles. Attention is also placed on
   the key components of a good briefing at the end of the simulation.
   The guidelines are helpful in creating simulations for classes of
   all levels and sizes.

Wills, S. & Ip, A. (2002). EnRole, Research, React, Resolve, Reflect: Developing and using online role-play learning designs. Retrieved July 20, 2006, from Learning Designs Web site: http://www.learningdesigns.uow.edu.au/guides/info/G1/index.htm.

   This website has a number of simulations suited for American
   Government courses, including one on Environmental Decision
   Making. Associated links are excellent resources for creating
   simulations, including flowcharts depicting the recommended
   simulation creation process. The simulations may be of use in
   advanced courses of various sizes.

References

Asal, V. (2005). Playing Games with International Relations. International Studies Perspectives 2005(6): 359-373.

Bloom, B., Englehart, M. Furst, E., Hill, W., and Krathwohl, D. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York, Toronto, Longmans, Green.

Courard-Hauri, David. (2004). Renegotiating Kyoto: a computer-aided role play. Academic Exchange Quarterly 8(4): 176-181.

Dougherty, B. K. (2003). Byzantine Politics: Using Simulations to Make Sense of the Middle East. PS: Political Science and Politics 36(2): 239-244.

Elder, C. D. (1973). Problems in the Structure and Use of Educational Simulation. Sociology of Education 46(Summer): 335-354.

Ellington, H., M. Gordon, and J. Fowlie (1998). Using Games and Simulations in the Classroom. London, Kogan Page.

Frass, John W. (1982). The Influence of Student Characteristics on the Effectiveness of Simulations in the Principles Course. The Journal of Economic Education 13:56-61.

Graff, G. (2003). Clueless in Academe. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Hardy, Richard J., Rackaway, Chapman and Sonnier, Laurie E. (2005). In the Supreme Court Justices' Shoes: Critical Thinking Through the Use of Hypothetical Case Law Analyses and Interactive Simulations. PS: Political Science & Politics 38 (3): 411-414.

Jansiewicz, Donald (2004), The Game of Politics Simulations: Classroom and Civic Education Applications. Paper presented at the Midwestern Political Science Association 2004 Annual Meeting, Chicago, IL.

Robinson, J. A., L. Anderson, M. Hermann and R. Snyder (1966). Teaching with Inter-Nation Simulation and Case Studies. The American Political Science Review 60(1): 53-65.

Smith, E. and Mark Boyer. (1996) "Designing In-Class Simulations," PS: Political Science and Politics 29(4):690-694.

Switky, B. (2004). "Party Strategies and Electoral Systems: Simulating Coalition Governments." PS:Political Science and Politics 37(1): 101-104.

Tse-Hei Lee, Joseph (2005). Teaching nonviolence in times of war. Academic Exchange Quarterly 9 (2): 240-246.

Wheeler, Sarah M. (2006). Role-Playing Games and Simulations for International Issues Courses. Journal of Political Science Education 2:331-347.

Sarah Wheeler, Ph.D. is an Assistant Professor of Political Science at Indiana University of Pennsylvania.