Revisiting the work ethic in America.

Starting with a reflection on the September 11th, 2001, terrorist attacks on the Pentagon and the World Trade Center and the corporate fraud and bankruptcies of 2002, the authors provide an overview of the professional literature concerning the origins, evolution, practice, and future implications of the work ethic in the United States. Discussion focuses on the American work ethic from both a historical and a modern-day perspective, highlighting the formation of what is now considered a major paradigm of work; views on the changing nature of the work ethic, especially for women and members of minority groups; and implications for career counselors.

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What is the American work ethic and how does it matter to people, especially career counselors and the people they serve? Tragically, new stimuli and recent events add weight to the discussion on the ongoing, seriatim, and incremental changes related to this complex topic and question. In the shock and numbing aftermath of the terrorist attacks on the Pentagon and the World Trade Center in September 2001 came months of countless accounts of heroic responses and initiatives during and following the collapse of the World Trade Center. Firefighters, police officers, counselors, and other workers from all walks of life were celebrated collectively and individually for their diligence, courage, and selfless attention to duty. In a national and international search for healing and recovery came repeated instances of human concern and outreach and of human dignity and reverential appreciation of and respect for others. In narratives and pictures in all the media, workers were celebrated and remembered in a manner unknown to current generations. Terkel's (1972) accounts of quiet, individual searches for meaning in life and work were writ large and loudly celebrated in numerous reports of human capacity, dedication, inspiration, and generosity in what had been previously taken for granted as mere quotidian, workaday tasks. In many respects, these noble, heroic, and unselfish acts were manifestations of ideal aspects of the American work ethic.

Before the ink dried in the depictions of this collective national grief and resurgence, before mourning ceased, monumental economic tragedies in the summer of 2002 shook the globe as revelations of corporate greed, dishonesty, fraud, and other corruption brought back the reality of the human potential for evil and moral frailty. Enron, WorldCom, Tyco, and other corporate entities became major, glaring examples of reprehensible and irresponsible corporate mismanagement; public deception; and worker disenfranchisement. Unanticipated bankruptcies of these and other major corporations destroyed worker pensions and shook the foundations of trust in the capitalist system as the public saw executives pleading the Fifth Amendment to avoid self-incrimination while retaining fortunes that resulted from the fraud and mismanagement by corporate officials and while Wall Street brokers and investors looked for an end to this economic debacle.

Ironically, at the same time the United States commemorated the dignity of work and workers involved in surviving and rebounding from the devastation of the World Trade Center, Americans saw pillars of industry and commerce acknowledge (or plead the Fifth Amendment about) the betrayal of public trust and the abdication of personal and professional responsibility in fraudulent corporate misbehavior, with, in our view, devastating effect on human beings and the public's trust in investment markets and investment safeguards. We believe that human dignity, worth, and potential and a work ethic focused on doing one's best were at risk in the moral decay that toppled these corporations. In light of these very different tragic occurrences and the numerous changes in how work is viewed and how careers develop, it seems wise to revisit the American work ethic in search of personal empowerment and resilience, while remaining mindful of the ramifications of the work ethic on business, society, and individuals. A condensed review of the work ethic and the issues related to the work ethic is followed by attention to implications for counseling and research.

Background

The work ethic in the United States is a construct of work that has a long history of evolution, with roots in religious concepts from Biblical times, Calvinist and Protestant asceticism, and the Industrial Revolution (Hill, 1996; Niles & Harris-Bowlsbey, 2002; Peterson & Gonzalez, 2000; Tilgher, 1930). Major theoretical changes in religious views of work and the impact of those changes on societal perspectives across decades have affected the attitudes people hold toward work and its value. In addition, the American work ethic continues to evolve as a result of current events and their sociocultural impact. The goal of this article is to delineate paradigm shifts, especially recent ones, in the American work ethic as a means of discerning and understanding implications for work and life today, with special emphasis on how these considerations and implications affect the work of career counselors.

Brief History of the Work Ethic

Evolution of the American work ethic may be viewed as a series of paradigm shifts or changes in the way people view work, beginning in biblical times and undergoing developmental changes affected by various historical and sociocultural events. The roots of the work ethic belong to theological perspectives on work ranging from Scripture, most notably the Book of Genesis in the Bible through the Protestant Reformation and Calvinism. The modern, secularized view of the work ethic can be traced through Weber's (1904/1958) contribution of the theory of the Protestant work ethic, but Americans' perceptions of the theory have also been influenced by changes brought about by developments in capitalism and industrialization. In the last 100 years alone, the women's suffrage movement, desegregation, and an emphasis on cultural diversity represent "new" paradigm shifts that have certainly changed the perspective of work in the United States. Over time, work has increasingly become what Weber described as the compelling "ethos" in American culture and, arguably, in all human life. These paradigm shifts, ranging from religious perspectives on work to the secularization of work, have contributed to changing views of work over time, continue today, and will continue to have a profound impact on career counseling. Time will tell if the events and aftermath of September 11, 2001, and recent corporate scandals lead to continued major shifts in the work ethic.

Definition of Work Ethic

In light of the impact that current events can and will likely have on the continued evolution of the work ethic, it seems critical for career counselors to reexamine the meaning of the work ethic. Because of its crucial implications for society, business, and individuals in today's workplace, researchers have made many attempts to define and measure the contemporary work ethic. A review of the general issues reflected in professional literature concerning the work ethic suggests that research tends to cluster around two primary aspects: its internal characteristics, as held by individuals, and its external characteristics, as exhibited in work behaviors. Furnham (1987) noted that, in a variety of ways, the work ethic has been defined as a culturally socialized norm, a constellation of personality traits or individual qualities, a dispositional variable of personality, or a facet of internal locus of control. In each of these definitions, it is possible to see the constants of internal attitudes and external behaviors. For the purposes of this article, the work ethic is considered in its most simplistic definition as a construct composed of two distinct parts: attitudes or values and the behaviors that outwardly reflect these attitudes or values.

In Weber's (1904/1958) theory of the Protestant work ethic, scholars find a popular construct around which a number of scales have been developed (a) to identify personality traits associated with the work ethic, (b) to measure the importance of work in the lives of individuals, and (c) to explain and describe behaviors associated with both a and b (Mudrack, 1997; Wentworth & Chell, 1997). The theory of the Protestant work ethic is Weber's attempt to define the individually held internal values and attitudes toward work. According to research on the Protestant work ethic, some traits associated with a strong work ethic include asceticism, integrity, independence, diligence, motivation, loyalty, and dependability (Hill, 1996; Kern, 1998). This finding tends to reinforce the view that the work ethic is related to internally held values. For example, some research indicates that adherents to the Protestant work ethic view money as an extrinsic reward that connotes achievement rather than as a goal in and of itself (Tang & Gilbert, 1995). However, there seems to have been little study of how internal values might be affected by social or ethnic minority status or by significant social upheaval such as that in the aftermath of the attack on the World Trade Center or modern corporate and accounting scandals. Understanding these issues will require much additional study and discussion.

As a dominant social norm in the United States, the "traditional" work ethic of job commitment and achievement, of short-term pain for long-term gain, is often strongly held and highly valued. However, Brown (2000) noted that little direct research has emphasized the nature of the work ethic for members of cultural and social minority groups. Typically, research has focused on the work ethic as a cultural norm principally affected by formative socialization experiences during childhood and adolescence. A moral value is placed on the worth of work, and this attitude is internalized by children through experiencing and observing the attitudes and actions of family and peers at work (Brown, 2000; Hill, 1996; Hill & Petty, 1995). Cultural values certainly have an impact on individual development, including career development (Carter, 1991); however, because cultural values differ, the importance of work, among other life tasks, cannot be assumed universally to conform to the Protestant work ethic. Therefore, it is essential to consider whether the current concept of the work ethic can be accurately, uniformly applied to all individuals in the "salad bowl" of the United States today.

Research focused on relationships between an internal locus of control (perceived control over life events) and the Protestant work ethic also yields interesting data and perspectives (Mudrack, 1997; Mudrack & Mason, 1995; Vodanovich, Weddle, & Piotrowski, 1997). Internal locus of control has been studied as one method of conceptualizing and explaining how some individuals are more likely than others to exhibit positive attitudes toward work. In relation to work, individuals with an internal locus of control can be deemed likely to believe that success or failure in work is due to individual efforts, rather than socioeconomic status, events, luck, or other external factors. Several studies have found a positive correlation between internal locus of control and a high Protestant work ethic (Kanter & Mirvis, 1989; Mudrack, 1997). Whether an internal locus of control can be affected by tragic and far-reaching effects of the attack on the World Trade Center and other current events remains to be seen; however, the initial shock and sobering aftermath of these events certainly revealed a national sense of vulnerability and a new and constant need for individual and national vigilance in everyday tasks.

Weber's (1904/1958) well-known view of changes in the economic structure as related to paradigm shifts regarding work seems to have particular relevance to the continuing evolution of the work ethic, especially in light of current events. For example, the social effects of joblessness alone are considerable, due, in part, to the value people place on work in American society. Social effects of unemployment, for example, are correlated with homelessness, spouse and child abuse, and alcoholism. In one longitudinal study of the effects of joblessness, sociologist M. Harvey Brenner (as cited in Tripett, 1982) found that a 1% increase in the national unemployment figures was correlated with a 4.1% increase in the suicide rate, as well as with an increase in the homicide rate and increased admissions to both state mental hospitals and prisons. Seen in this light, if work gives or is perceived to give an individual dignity, then not working removes an individual's dignity. The implications of this perspective are chilling in an era of the "temping" of the workforce through contract work and repeated instances of involuntary unemployment (Bridges, 1994; Rifkin, 1995). If an individual gets dignity from working, how can he or she have any sense of dignity in unemployment, and how ironic and troubling is this quandary in an era that has had many serial periods of involuntary unemployment?

The Work Ethic Today

Viewed from the combined historical and theological perspective of Weber's (1904/1958) theory, it is possible to see how the modern work ethic has evolved and how attributes and attitudes of individuals in work have been secularized over time into the construct known as the work ethic. As has been noted, the most common definitions of the work ethic tend to portray a person who values hard work and displays personal qualities of honesty, asceticism, industriousness, and integrity. However, some employers suggest that it is becoming increasingly difficult to hire workers who have these qualities (Hill, 1996; Weaver, 1997; Wentworth & Chell, 1997), and as noted, some scholars have contended that there is no universal work ethic, especially for women and members of minority groups (Peterson & Gonzalez, 2000), or more precisely that this dominant work ethic is biased against and therefore hazardous to and disenfranchising of women and members of minority groups. In response to these and similar concerns, Rifkin (1995) and others have contended that the work ethic in today's society continues to change, perhaps not necessarily for the better.

Modern ideas of the work ethic might be best conceptualized as a kind of uneasy compromise. Implicit in the understanding of the work ethic is what might be perceived as a social contract consisting of some key promises: the ability to afford both necessities and luxuries, the idea that an individual's basic needs will be provided for, physical safety, economic gain, and psychological fulfillment. The compromise for individuals seems to be that, if they work hard, honestly, and well, these benefits will undoubtedly accrue (Rifkin, 1995). In other words, hard work pays off in the long term; however, in the United States, as well as in the rest of the world, economic turbulence, unemployment, underemployment, corporate downsizing, and scandals in accounting and management, such as those attributed to Enron, WorldCom, Tyco, and others in 2002, seem to at least threaten, if not invalidate, the old promises of the work ethic. Is the social contract dead?

In addition, Kanter and Mirvis (1989) discussed the concept of an "entitled" (p. 144) generation. In this perspective, earlier events in the twentieth century--such as increased education, baby boomers raised in affluence, industrial and technological progress, mass marketing, and a good economy--contributed to the development of a nation of people who believe in being better off economically than their parents' generation and who regard the good life as a kind of birthright (Albee, 1977). However, this perceived birthright may not be the reality for workers in this decade, because victims of major corporate bankruptcies see their jobs, pensions, and other aspects of this American dream vanish.

Following this line of thought, Yankelovich (1978) suggested the existence of "New Breed Values," which are a partial result of the disparity between formerly held work values and the realities of modern work. For many, the values of the 1950s and 1960s have been eroded as the appeal of and the sense of intrinsic value in working have decreased. In the face of the changing nature of modern employment, dramatically reduced job stability, less emphasis on job and on family, and less personal fulfillment, younger workers and the increasing numbers of independent, contract workers of all ages may not appreciate or embrace the incentives for work that motivated their parents (Weaver, 1997; Wentworth & Chell, 1997). As noted earlier, incentives for work may also differ across cultures (Brown, 2000; Peterson & Gonzalez, 2000). Apparently, although individuals have, to some extent, withdrawn from emotional involvement in work, the new incentives may include an increasing number of external motivators, such as the demand for steady pay increases and fringe benefits to compensate for the lack of job appeal and leisure time. One survey by Kanter and Mirvis (1989) forcibly demonstrated how the work ethic has been changing in American society:

      [while] 30 percent of the American population strongly embraces
      all aspects of the work ethic ... another 44 percent believes
      in the value of work but is less committed to the necessity of
      working as an end in itself. Finally, 27 percent of the work
      force rejects the value of work out of hand. (p. 189)

These are strong words about the future of work in U.S. society, especially when viewed in the sobering aftermath and major erosion of confidence that have occurred following the numerous reports of mismanagement and overt, intentional deceit in the highest levels of management of some companies.

Conclusion and Implications

Work in U.S. society remains a highly significant aspect of people's lives. Work not only provides food, shelter, and clothing but also, in many ways, frames a large part of self-esteem and satisfaction in life. In the United States, identity is often closely identified with the work role, but for many people, the promises inherent in the old work ethic no longer seem valid (Peterson & Gonzalez, 2000; Yankelovich, 1978). It is possible, even likely, that this set of circumstances may constitute a kind of "identity crisis" for people who strongly adhere to the principles of the work ethic. Perhaps the future of the work ethic is best described in Weber's (1904/1958) sensible and prophetic statement:

    No one knows who will live in this cage in the future, or whether at
    the end of this tremendous development entirely new prophets will
    arise, or there will be a great rebirth of old ideas and ideals, or,
    if neither, mechanized petrification, embellished with a sort of
    convulsive self-importance. (p. 182)

Implicit in these words are some simple instructions for career counselors. It seems likely that clients will increasingly be individuals who may feel that they have been let down by a system that is no longer economically promising or psychologically fulfilling. Counselors need to be aware of how strongly held the work ethic may be and how it is often associated with the identity of its adherents. In Weber's words that we have quoted, one also sees that the future and the very nature of work in society may indeed be unknowable, and awareness of this ambiguity should assist career counselors in preparing their clients to be constantly ready for the changes that will occur. Taken together, these statements suggest the necessity of being sensitive to, and having empathy with, a client's values and of being proactive in helping clients develop personally fulfilling strategies for work. By extension, short- and long-term career planning will require still more attention than the current high priority that it is already accorded in career counseling.

As a point of departure in the journey of rekindling their dedication to counseling in the wake of the attack on the World Trade Center and other national tragedies that have been discussed previously in this article, counselors might do well to revisit and rediscover their personal and professional commitment to counseling through intense and ongoing self-examination, perhaps modeled after Stephen Daedelus, the protagonist in James Joyce's (1916) A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, who repeatedly seeks orientation and identification in terms of all facets of time and space and in terms of his very essence. A similar question can be asked of counselors: "Who are we, in the aftermath of such tragedy and on the path to renewal and empowerment for ourselves and our clients?" In this search, as well, each of us, as career counselors, might join Savickas (1995) and the career counselors who authored the ACES/NCDA Position Paper: Preparing for Career Development in the New Millennium (Hansen et al., 2000) as members of the Commission on Career Development in revisiting, editing, and revising our life-career biographies, our personal stories, as one way to clearly ascertain and articulate a sense of renewal and rededication to counseling, to a collective noble and empowering dedication to promoting personal worth, dignity, uniqueness, and potential for all, as so ably stated in the Preamble to the American Counseling Association's (1995) ethical standards. Such a renewal and rededication might be major landmarks for counselors in asserting themselves in their work and in all facets of their lives. In turn, counselors might help clients orient and reorient in terms of these same models and stimuli (e.g., helping clients enhance self-knowledge and formulate or reconsider near-and long-term plans. Counselors who discern client disorientation or a lack of future orientation and possible lack of hope could use strategies for helping clients create hope by joining Savickas (Savickas, 1990; Savickas, Stilling, & Schwartz, 1984) in appreciating that everyone has a past and a present, but an individual's future, and his or her sense of a future, might require moving beyond an immediate focus to planful attention and implementation of both personal short-and long-term goals.

Counselors might find considerable help, as well, in revisiting Macoby and Terzi's (1981) concept of a self-fulfillment ethic; Hansen's (1999) poignant articulation of Super's sense of helping clients balance and even integrate work roles and responsibilities with other life roles and responsibilities; and Niles and Harris-Bowlsbey's (2002) echoing of many points from the Secretary's Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills (1992), most notably a sense of educating clients for personal responsibility for career development and resilience, especially lifelong learning. In addition, in these trying and perilous times, clients may find some stability in a long-standing concept of each person having one lifelong career and each person's responsibility for personal career ownership and stewardship (Engels, 1994; Hansen et al., 2000). Seen in this light of one life-long career, a person's career can still be and feel stable despite any number of changes in jobs or other aspects of work. Moreover, in this view, a person's career can be seen as partially internal to the person and need not be viewed as totally external, again affording a fuller sense of stability and personal control, even during times of change--including subtle and major changes in the work ethic.

Following this logic of attending to internal personal control and internal reality as well as attending to the real September 11 trauma and posttrauma that so many people experienced, career counselors might do well to recall all the attention in the literature to the importance of personal counseling as an inseparable element of career counseling (Betz & Corning, 1993; Davidson & Gilbert, 1993). Considering the numerous perspectives and investigations into personal counseling as a prerequisite to and an intrinsic aspect of career counseling, counselors might concentrate attention on working with clients to assess the impact of the recent tragic events on a client's sense of security, autonomy, and other aspects of client empowerment or disempowerment. In this regard, Savickas (1995) has offered considerable food for thought and action in helping clients discern and narrate their individual life and career stories. Finally, all counselors might continue working to conceptualize, formulate, articulate, and advocate for a fuller array of work ethics, including and client's personal work ethic, that offer and encourage the empowerment of both counselors and clients without risking or compromising identity.

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Amy L. McCortney and Dennis W. Engels, Counseling Program, University of North Texas. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Amy L. McCortney, Counseling Program, Box 310829, University of North Texas, Denton, TX 76203-0829 (e-mail: [e-mail]).