Resistant starch in the Australian diet.Abstract (Nutr Diet 2004;61:98-104) We set out to estimate resistant starch Resistant starch (RS) is starch that escapes digestion in the small intestine of healthy individuals.1 Resistant starch is considered the third type of dietary fiber, as it can deliver some of the benefits of insoluble fiber and some of the benefits of soluble fiber. (RS) intakes using the 24-hour food intake data from the 1995 National Nutrition Survey (NNS NNS Newport News Shipbuilding NNS National Numeracy Strategy NNS Norfolk Naval Shipyard (Portsmouth, VA) NNS Newhouse News Service NNS Non-Native Speaking NNS Network Node Server (Cisco) ) database of 13 858 Australians. As there are often significant differences in the RS content of foods reported by various authors, we calculated intakes based on both published maximum and minimum values for individual foods. RS intakes (mean and SEM) for all persons were in the range 3.4 [+ or -] 0.03 g/d (minimum estimate) to 9.4 [+ or -] 0.07 g/d (maximum estimate). Adult males (19+ years) consumed more RS (10.7 [+ or -] 0.11 g/day maximum estimate) than adult females (19+ years) (8.2 g [+ or -] 0.08 g/day maximum estimate). RS comprised a greater proportion of the total starch starch, white, odorless, tasteless, carbohydrate powder. It plays a vital role in the biochemistry of both plants and animals and has important commercial uses. intake in the very young and in the older age groups. Across the population, foods contributing most to RS intake were potatoes, bananas ba·nan·as adj. Slang Crazy: "That's the horrible thing when you're bananas and white bread. Key words: resistant starch, dietary intake, Australian population, food ********** Introduction Starch is a major source of energy in the Australian food supply. It is now widely accepted that not all starch is digested and absorbed by healthy individuals, but that some, now termed resistant starch (RS), passes undigested through the small intestine small intestine Long, narrow, convoluted tube in which most digestion takes place. It extends 22–25 ft (6.7–7.6 m), from the stomach to the large intestine. into the large intestine large intestine End section of the intestine. It is about 5 ft (1.5 m) long, is wider than the small intestine, and has a smooth inner wall. In the first half, enzymes from the small intestine complete digestion, and bacteria produce many B vitamins and vitamin K. , where it can be fermented by bacteria that reside there (1). Resistant starch has been a topic of considerable scientific interest for approximately 20 years, with purported pur·port·ed adj. Assumed to be such; supposed: the purported author of the story. pur·port  ed·ly adv. health benefits spanning glucose
and insulin control as well as improved colonic health via
fermentation-related mechanisms including short chain fatty acid Short chain fatty acids are a sub-group of fatty acids with aliphatic tails of less than six carbons. They include:
Refers to tissues that produce mucus, such as the digestive, genital and urinary tracts. Mentioned in: Intestinal Polyps mucosal pertaining to or emanating from mucosa. integrity (2). Resistant starch is a naturally occurring component of the diet, and can be found in foods such as legumes Legumes A family of plants that bear edible seeds in pods, including beans and peas. Mentioned in: Cholesterol, High legumes (l and cooked, cooled potato (3). Different forms of RS are recognised and these have been called RS1 (starch granules Granules Small packets of reactive chemicals stored within cells. Mentioned in: Allergic Rhinitis, Allergies physically entrapped in plant tissues found in wholegrain cereal cereal or grain Any grass yielding starchy seeds suitable for food. The most commonly cultivated cereals are wheat, rice, rye, oats, barley, corn, and sorghum. As human food, cereals are usually marketed in raw grain form or as ingredients of food products. foods), RS2 (particularly insoluble insoluble /in·sol·u·ble/ (in-sol´u-b'l) not susceptible of being dissolved. in·sol·u·ble adj. Not soluble. granules of starch found in foods such as legumes), RS3 (crystalline Like a crystal. It implies a uniform structure of molecules in all dimensions. For example, phase change technology, widely used for rewritable optical discs, uses crystalline spots (bits) to reflect the laser beam. Amorphous, non-crystalline bits do not reflect light. starch formed when hot starchy starch·y adj. starch·i·er, starch·i·est 1. a. Containing starch. b. Stiffened with starch. 2. Of or resembling starch. 3. foods are cooled) and RS4 (chemically modified starches Modified starch is a food additive which is prepared by treating starch or starch granules, causing the starch to be partially degraded. Modified starch is used as a thickening agent, stabiliser, or an emulsifier. used as thickening agents Thickening agents, or thickeners, are substances which, when added to a mixture, increase its viscosity without substantially modifying its other properties, such as taste. They provide body, increase stability, and improve suspending action. in processed foods). In addition, a commercial source of resistant starch (called Hi-maize[TM]) has been available to Australian food product manufacturers since 1993, and has been included in a range of commonly consumed foods including baked goods and breakfast cereals This is a list of breakfast cereals. Many cereals are trademarked brands of large companies such as Kellogg's, General Mills, Malt-O-Meal, Nestlé, The Quaker Oats Company, and Post Cereals, but similar equivalent products are often sold by other manufacturers and as store own (4). Given the scientific interest in resistant starch and its increasing use in the Australian food supply, it is timely to evaluate the resistant starch content of the Australian diet. Currently there is no internationally agreed and validated in vitro in vitro /in vi·tro/ (in ve´tro) [L.] within a glass; observable in a test tube; in an artificial environment. in vi·tro adj. In an artificial environment outside a living organism. method for measuring resistant starch in food. One recent method (5) was approved by AOAC International AOAC International is a not-for-profit scientific association headquartered in Gaithersburg, MD. It sets standard methods that allow people to have confidence in analytical results obtained from scientific analysis. , but is supported by only limited in vivo in vivo /in vi·vo/ (ve´vo) [L.] within the living body. in vi·vo adj. Within a living organism. in vivo adv. data. Other methods have also been published (3,6-8), however Champ (9) demonstrated that considerable differences can occur between methodologies. In vivo methodologies such as intubation intubation /in·tu·ba·tion/ (in?too-ba´shun) the insertion of a tube into a body canal or hollow organ, as into the trachea. endotracheal intubation and ileostomy ileostomy /il·e·os·to·my/ (il?e-os´tah-me) surgical creation of an opening into the ileum, with a stoma on the abdominal wall. il·e·os·to·my n. 1. have also been used to measure resistant starch (10, 11), however these methods are not useful for screening large numbers of foods for dietary intake assessment. Cassidy et al. (12) approximated resistant starch intake to be 5% of total starch consumption, however it is known that the relative portion of starch that escapes digestion digestion Process of dissolving and chemically converting food for absorption by cells. In the mouth, food is chewed, mixed with saliva, which begins to break down starches, and kneaded by the tongue into a ball for swallowing. in vivo is dependent on starch type and amount consumed (13, 14). Some types of resistant starch are resistant to amylolytic am·y·lol·y·sis n. Conversion of starch to sugars by the action of enzymes or acids. am  y·lo·lyt enzymes included in the
AOAC AOAC Association of Official Analytical Chemists (now AOAC International)AOAC Association of Analytical Communities AOAC Association of Analytical Chemists AOAC Always On/Always Connected AOAC Aero-Optic Evaluation Center Total Dietary Fibre dietary fibre Noun the roughage in fruits and vegetables that aid digestion methodologies, so indigestible in·di·gest·i·ble adj. Difficult or impossible to digest: an indigestible meal. in portions are reported as dietary fibre for labelling purposes. Although this meets the needs of food labelling regulators, it does not accurately measure the resistant starch content of foods, or allow for an accurate measurement of resistant starch in the food supply. Previously, resistant starch intake values have been calculated for various countries across Europe and for India by applying resistant starch values for selected starchy foods to national consumption data, and these range from 3.22 g/day in Norway to 10 g/day in India (15-17). In Australia, RS levels measured in simulated diets by in vitro analysis and ileostomate collections were similar at 8.6 g/10 MJ and 4.9 g/10 MJ respectively (13, 18). Further, Baghurst et al. (19) estimated the minimum resistant starch intake in various demographic groups in Australian children and adults by applying published resistant starch values for foods to data from multiple national nutrition surveys. Intakes across men and women over 1988 and 1993 ranged from 4.88 to 6.26 g/10 MJ or 4.37 to 4.96 g/d. However, limited detail was presented on how these values were obtained. In the current study, we acknowledge that due to the limitations of available resistant starch methodologies, it is more meaningful to assign a likely range of resistant starch values to assess the intake of population groups. We have compiled a set of resistant starch ranges for typically consumed starchy foods from various in vitro methods, to estimate maximum and minimum resistant starch values. These values have then been applied to the one-day recall data in the 1995 National Nutrition Survey (NNS) database of 13 858 Australians, to estimate resistant starch intake range across various demographic groups. Methods Selection of values for the resistant starch content of foods There are many practical and theoretical difficulties encountered when trying to measure the proportion of starch in foods that resists digestion in the human small intestine. Some are associated with the food, such as the degree of starch crystallinity Crystallinity refers to the degree of structural order in a solid. In a crystal, the atoms or molecules are arranged in a regular, periodic manner. In a gas, the relative positions of the atoms or molecules are completely random. , the structure of the food matrix and the extent to which this has been disrupted by grinding grinding, process by which surface material is removed from an object, usually metal, by the abrasive action of a rotating wheel or a moving belt that contains abrasive grains. during processing (14). Others are associated with the consumer, such as variations in chewing chewing or mastication Up-and-down and side-to-side movements of the lower jaw, using the teeth to grind food for easier swallowing. During chewing, the tongue shapes food into a lump and saliva lubricates it for swallowing. , digestion and interactions with other food components in the gut (19). These factors are not readily standardised Adj. 1. standardised - brought into conformity with a standard; "standardized education" standardized standard - conforming to or constituting a standard of measurement or value; or of the usual or regularized or accepted kind; "windows of standard width"; . Numerous methods have been developed and although each has a measure of validity no single assay is suitable for all purposes. In this paper we have collected data obtained in the most part by protocols developed by Englyst et al. (3) and by Muir and O'Dea (11) since these protocols have produced results comparable with those obtained with ileostomate subjects. Usually, these results were reported as grams of resistant starch per 100g food as eaten, or were transposed trans·pose v. trans·posed, trans·pos·ing, trans·pos·es v.tr. 1. To reverse or transfer the order or place of; interchange. 2. by us into these units when the data were reported on a dry weight basis. The use of 100g portions of food as eaten was useful because it enabled us to readily calculate resistant starch intake from the amounts of food eaten by people in the NNS. Foods with the same name have been reported to contain quite different amounts of resistant starch and we considered that this variance should be reflected in our analysis. Where there was more than one published value for resistant starch in any given food, both the lowest and the highest value was independently used to calculate the 24-hour intake from all foods. This resulted in two estimates of intake, one representing a possible maximum amount of resistant starch consumed in 24 hours and another representing a possible minimum amount. Foods in which resistant starch was reported as not measurable were given a zero value. In cases where only one value was available this was used for both the maximum and minimum resistant starch content. Construction of a dataset of the resistant starch content of foods used in the 1995 National Nutrition Survey The 1995 National Nutrition Survey included quantitative 24-hour dietary recall data for each participant. The Confidentialised Unit Record File (CURF CURF Concordia University, River Forest CURF Columbia Union Revolving Fund (Columbia Union Conference) ) produced by the Australian Bureau of Statistics The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) is the Australian government agency that collects and publishes statistical information about Australia and its people. Population and Housing The agency undertakes the Australian Census of Population and Housing. (20) and used for the current analysis identifies foods using a customised food list, compiled for the survey from a range of sources (21). The coding system Noun 1. coding system - a system of signals used to represent letters or numbers in transmitting messages code - a coding system used for transmitting messages requiring brevity or secrecy used for the food list allows identification of increasingly specific food types or categories by means of two, three and four-digit hierarchy of food code prefixes. To estimate the resistant starch intake of participants in the 1995 National Nutrition Survey, specific foods in the NNS food list (typically identified at the four-digit food code prefix The beginning or to add to the beginning. To prefix a header onto a packet means to place the header characters in front of the packet. "To prefix" at the beginning is the opposite of "to append" characters at the end. See prepend. 1. level) were matched by hand with the minimum and maximum resistant starch values extracted from published data (Table 1). These resistant starch values were subsequently applied to the intake data for these foods in the NNS 24-hour recall dataset. The resistant starch figures from the recall data were then aggregated by subject identification number and by food code. The resulting 'collapsed' datasets were used to obtain 24-hour resistant starch intake summaries by age and sex, or relative resistant starch contribution summaries by food. Statistical analysis These were performed using proprietary software (Stata Corporation, College Stations, Texas, Stata version 6 1999). The raw resistant starch intakes across the population were not normally distributed as displayed by box plots but when transformed into [log.sub.10] values showed a normal distribution. However, the results given are untransformed means and standard errors of the mean (SEM). Results Foods containing resistant starch These are shown in Table 1. Based on resistant starch maximum values, the foods containing the largest amount of resistant starch per 100 g were grains other than rice (1221), rye rye, in botany rye, cereal grain of the family Gramineae (grass family). The grain, Secale cereale, is important chiefly in Central and N Europe. breads such as pumpernickel (1224), breakfast cereals such as flakes (1235) and muesli mues·li n. A mixture of usually untoasted rolled oats and dried fruit, often used as a breakfast cereal. [German dialectal, diminutive of German Mus, mush, from Middle High German (1271), fibre-increased bread (1225), fibre-increased savoury biscuits or bran (1323), bananas (1651), potatoes (2331) and potato crisps (2551), and foods containing legumes (2411, 2421, 2422). While we collected data obtained mainly by the methods used by Englyst (3) and by Muir and O'Dea (11), the resistant starch content of some foods was not available by these protocols. For these (see Table 1 food categories 1241, 1242, 1244, 1245, 1253, 1275, 1277, 1322, 1324-65, 2521, 2522, 2541, 2542, 2721), data were obtained by a different method (22). But because they were not major items of diet in the NNS survey, we considered any differences that might arise from analytical variation to be too small to significantly affect estimates of resistant starch intake. The range (highest and lowest) of reported values for resistant starch in foods was very large for some foods like rice (3.1 and 0 g per 100 g of food), porridge (0.37 and 0.1 g per 100 g of food), fibre-increased breads (2.7 and 0.9 g per 100 g of food), and cooked potatoes (2.7 and 0.16 g per 100 g of food). These differences probably reflect both analytical variation as well as differences in the content of retrograded starch (RS3), which is known to increase with time when hot foods are allowed to cool (23). However, the range of values reported for other foods was not as great. Resistant starch intakes Table 2 shows that resistant starch intake for all persons aged over 19 was 9.4 [+ or -] 0.07 g/day (estimated from food resistant starch maximum) or 3.4 [+ or -] 0.03 g/day (estimated from food resistant starch minimum). Males had slightly higher intake of resistant starch than females at all ages and the intake of the youngest age group (two to three years) was just over half that of young adults, who had the highest intakes. The threefold range in estimated mean ([+ or -] SE mean) intake for all persons over 19 years of age, from 3.4 [+ or -] 0.03 g/day (resistant starch minimum) to 9.4 [+ or -] 0.07 g/day (resistant starch maximum), clearly demonstrates the magnitude of the uncertainties associated with measuring resistant starch as previously described. The proportion of starch intake contributed by resistant starch differed little with age or gender. Resistant starch maximum values ranged from 5.6% in eight- to 11-year-old males to 8.6% in females over 65 years of age and resistant starch minimum values ranged from 2.1 to 3.2% (Table 3). Foods providing the majority of resistant starch in individual diets The food groups providing the majority of resistant starch are given in Table 4. When arranged in rank order, the proportion of starch provided by the third, fourth and fifth etc. foods rapidly declined and so only the first two are shown. Discussion Our calculated range of intakes for adult males (3.8 [+ or -] 0.04 to 10.7 [+ or -] 0.11 g/day) and adult females (3.0 [+ or -] 0.03 to 8.2 [+ or -] 0.08 g/day) is consistent with previous Australian estimates of 5.3 g/day for men and 5.0 g/day for women based on earlier surveys (19). In absolute amounts, daily resistant starch intake increases with age from childhood, with males always consuming more than females (Table 2). In later years resistant starch intakes plateau plateau, elevated, level or nearly level portion of the earth's surface, larger in summit area than a mountain and bounded on at least one side by steep slopes, occurring on land or in oceans. and then fall slightly in the oldest age group (over 65). The proportion of starch that is resistant starch in the diets of people over 19 was between 2.7 [+ or -] 0.03% and 7.4 [+ or -] 0.07% and although it spans a wider range, it is in good agreement with previous estimates of 4 to 4.7% (19) and does not change significantly with age or with gender (Table 3). Although there are small differences between the types of food supplying the majority of resistant starch in the various age and gender groups (Table 4) these differences do not appear to affect the proportion of total starch that is resistant starch. When resistant starch maximum values of foods are used to calculate the contribution to intake, potatoes and bananas between them account for nearly half of the total resistant starch consumed for all persons, with each of the other foods supplying less than 10% of the total. This is similar to the findings of the earlier CSIRO CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research Organization (Australia) surveys (19) where it was reported that the breads/crackers food group together with the fruit/juice food group in which the resistant starch was supplied mostly by bananas (personal communication, Dr K Baghurst 2002), provided 47% of total intake. The present data show that potatoes always supply more resistant starch than any other food for all age and gender groups except the very young (two to three years) when bananas provide more. The food that provides the second largest amount of resistant starch is usually bananas except in the case of adolescent males (12 to 15 years and 16 to 18 years) for whom white bread is more important. However, when the resistant starch minimum values are applied to the same foods the rank order of items providing resistant starch show significant changes. In this case it is bananas and white bread that are the major sources, together supplying about one third of the total with potatoes becoming much less significant at about sixth or seventh in the list. Potatoes exhibit a wide range in RS3 content and when they are a major item in a diet, estimates of intake will be subject to significant variation. Breads fortified fortified (fôrt  ´fīd),adj containing additives more potent than the principal ingredient. with resistant starch comprised of highly crystalline granules (RS2) from Hi-maize[TM] were introduced into Australia in 1994 and today hold 8% of the entire bread market (personal communication, the Australian Hi-Maize marketing group 2003). In the years since the 1995 survey. Hi-maize[TM] has been introduced into additional foods but we consider it unlikely that this might have significantly changed population intakes of resistant starch or altered the main categories of foods from which it was obtained at the time of the survey. In 1995 these foods (category 1225) provided less than 2% of the total resistant starch (maximum and minimum) intakes. Consumption of resistant starch at the relatively low levels reported here is unlikely to increase faecal fae·cal adj. Chiefly British Variant of fecal. Adj. 1. faecal - of or relating to feces; "fecal matter" fecal wet weight or increase butyrate butyrate /bu·ty·rate/ (bu´ti-rat) a salt, ester, or anionic form of butyric acid. bu·ty·rate n. A salt or ester of butyric acid. butyrate a salt of butyric acid. excretion excretion, process of eliminating from an organism waste products of metabolism and other materials that are of no use. It is an essential process in all forms of life. In one-celled organisms wastes are discharged through the surface of the cell. significantly (26). However, resistant starch may act synergistically syn·er·gis·tic adj. 1. Of or relating to synergy: a synergistic effect. 2. Producing or capable of producing synergy: synergistic drugs. 3. with non-starch polysaccharides at levels typically consumed in Australia leading to improvements in faecal bio-markers of colonic function (26). An increase in the consumption resistant starch-rich foods such as wholegrain cereal and legumes could have significant benefits for human health. In summary, we believe that these data present a reasonable starting point Noun 1. starting point - earliest limiting point terminus a quo commencement, get-go, offset, outset, showtime, starting time, beginning, start, kickoff, first - the time at which something is supposed to begin; "they got an early start"; "she knew from the for clinicians and researchers to more closely examine dietary intakes of resistant starch.
Table 1. Estimated resistant starch content (g per 100 g as eaten) of
starch-rich foods in the National Nutrition Survey 1995
Published values for resistant
Food code Food name starch g/100 g as eaten
Highest value Lowest value
(RS max) (RS min)
1211 Grains (other than rice)
e.g. millet, barley, raw
oats 16.1 (b) 1.6 (a)
1221 Breads, rolls, white 0.91 (d) 0.55 (a)
1222 Breads, rolls, mixed grain 0.9 (c) 0.9 (c)
1223 Breads, rolls, wholemeal 1.5 (d) 0.52 (a)
1224 Breads, rolls, rye, black,
pumpernickel 4.5 (c) 3.2 (d)
1225 Breads, rolls, white,
fibre-increased 2.7 (i) 0.9 (c)
1226 Breads, rolls, major flour
not stated 1.7 (c) 1.7 (c)
1232 Breakfast cereal, bran,
processed 1.1 (d) 0.6 (e)
1233 Breakfast cereal, low
sugar, puffed, flakes,
extruded single cereal
(e.g. cornflakes) 3.1 (e) 2.3 (a)
1234 Breakfast cereal, wheat-
based biscuits and
shredded wheat 2.3 (c) 1.6 (d)
1235 Breakfast cereal, wheat,
low added sugar, puffed,
flakes 6.2 (d) 1 (a)
1241 English style muffins 1 (f) 1 (f)
1242 Crumpets 1 (f) 1 (f)
1243 Flat breads: lavish, naan,
chapatti, pitta 1.6 (c) 1.6 (c)
1244 Fancy breads: focaccia with
cheese, fruit, vegetable 1.2 (f) 1.2 (f)
1245 Tortilla, taco shells, corn
bread 0.85 (f) 0.85 (f)
1251 Pasta and egg noodles 1.5 (c) 0.9 (d)
1253 Noodles, Asian style 0.45 (f) 0.45 (f)
1261 Rice 3.1 (e) 0 (d)
1262 Rice-flavoured, puffed,
crackers 0.96 (a) 0.7 (e)
1271 Breakfast cereal, muesli,
untoasted 4.3 (c) 4.3 (c)
1274 Breakfast cereal, grain
mixtures 0.9 (a) 0.9 (a)
1275 Breakfast cereal, grain/
fruit/nut mixtures 0.8 (f) 0.8 (f)
1277 Breakfast cereals/ bars 0.2 (f) 0.2 (f)
1281 Breakfast cereal, hot
porridge type 0.37 (b) 0.1 (d)
1311 Sweet biscuits, plain or
flavoured 1.3 (d) 0.96 (a)
1312 Sweet biscuits, plain with
fruit, nut 1.9 (d) 0.94 (a)
1314 Cream-filled biscuit 0.86 (d) 0.63 (a)
1321 Savoury biscuits, plain,
low-med fat 0.6 (d) 0.6 (d)
1322 Savoury biscuits plain,
high fat 0.4 (f) 0.4 (f)
1323 Savoury biscuits, fibre-
increased or bran 4.3 (d) 2.8 (a)
1324 Savoury biscuits, flavoured 0.55 (f) 0.55 (f)
1331 Cakes, cake mixes, buns,
scones, slices 0.7 (f) 0.4 (f)
1332 Buns and yeast products 0.7 (f) 0.4 (f)
1341-5 Pastry, croissant, pie
crust 0.7 (f) 0.4 (f)
1351-8 Pizza, sandwich, rolls,
pasta, rice dishes 0.7 (f) 0.4 (f)
1361-5 Pancakes, crepes 0.7 (f) 0.4 (f)
1651 Banana raw, average 5.4 (g) 2.4 (g)
2311 Potatoes--baked, boiled,
mashed, instant, fries
(hot) 2.7 (c) 0.16 (h)
2312 Potato products--gems,
wedges, hash browns,
patty (cold/reheated) 0.8 (d) 0.17 (a)
2313 Potato dishes--salads,
canned, scallops (cold/
reheated) 2.4 (a) 0.46 (h)
2331 Sweet potato, root
vegetable 2.1 (d) 1.1 (d)
2351 Peas and edible--podded
peas 2.1 (d) 0.92 (a)
2352 Beans--butter, broad 2.6 (c) 1.2 (d)
2411 Mature legumes and pulses--
lentil, soy, split pea 6.6 (c) 2.3 (a)
2421 Products of legumes and
pulse 4.1 (c) 4.1 (c)
2422 Dishes with legumes--baked
beans (Haricot) 5.6 (a) 1.5 (d)
2511 Potato crisps 4.5 (d) 4.5 (d)
2521 Corn chips 0.7 (f) 0.7 (f)
2522 Popcorn 0.3 (f) 0.3 (f)
2541 Pretzels 1 (f) 1 (f)
2542 Other snacks 0.53 (f) 0.53 (f)
2721 Muesli bars 0.2 (f) 0.2 (f)
(a) Calculated as edible portion from data in (3).
(b) Calculated as edible portion from data in (8).
(c) Data from Birkett A. Resistant starch interacts with dietary protein
to potentially affect colon cancer risk. PhD thesis Deakin University
1997.
(d) Data from (24).
(e) Data from (11).
(f) Data from (22).
(g) Data from (25).
(h) Data from (23).
(i) Data from manufacturer's label.
Table 2. Resistant starch intakes (mean [+ or -] SEM) by age and gender
(g/day) based on upper (RS max) and lower (RS min) estimates of RS in
foods
RS g/day
Male
Age group Mean [+ or -] SEM Mean [+ or -] SEM
(years) (RS max) (RS min)
2-3 6.2 [+ or -] 0.4 2.4 [+ or -] 0.1
4-7 7.3 [+ or -] 0.3 2.9 [+ or -] 0.1
8-11 8.2 [+ or -] 0.3 3.1 [+ or -] 0.1
12-15 10.1 [+ or -] 0.4 3.7 [+ or -] 0.1
16-18 11.6 [+ or -] 0.7 3.9 [+ or -] 0.2
19-24 11.4 [+ or -] 0.4 4.0 [+ or -] 0.1
25-44 11.1 [+ or -] 0.2 4.0 [+ or -] 0.1
45-64 10.7 [+ or -] 0.2 3.8 [+ or -] 0.1
65+ 9.5 [+ or -] 0.2 3.3 [+ or -] 0.1
Adults 19+ 10.7 [+ or -] 0.11 3.8 [+ or -] 0.04
RS g/day
Female
Age group Mean [+ or -] SEM Mean [+ or -] SEM
(years) (RS max) (RS min)
2-3 5.5 [+ or -] 0.3 2.1 [+ or -] 0.1
4-7 6.1 [+ or -] 0.2 2.5 [+ or -] 0.1
8-11 7.1 [+ or -] 0.2 2.7 [+ or -] 0.1
12-15 7.3 [+ or -] 0.3 2.8 [+ or -] 0.1
16-18 7.4 [+ or -] 0.4 2.7 [+ or -] 0.1
19-24 8.2 [+ or -] 0.3 2.9 [+ or -] 0.1
25-44 8.3 [+ or -] 0.1 3.1 [+ or -] 0.0
45-64 8.2 [+ or -] 0.1 3.0 [+ or -] 0.1
65+ 7.8 [+ or -] 0.2 2.8 [+ or -] 0.1
Adults 19+ 8.2 [+ or -] 0.08 3.0 [+ or -] 0.03
Table 3. Resistant starch as a proportion of starch intakes by age and
gender
RS as % of total starch intake
Male
Mean [+ or -] SEM Mean [+ or -] SEM
Age group (years) (RS max) (RS min)
2-3 7.5 [+ or -] 0.46 3.0 [+ or -] 0.19
4-7 6.8 [+ or -] 0.33 2.7 [+ or -] 0.11
8-11 5.6 [+ or -] 0.17 2.2 [+ or -] 0.07
12-15 5.7 [+ or -] 0.18 2.1 [+ or -] 0.07
16-18 5.9 [+ or -] 0.22 2.1 [+ or -] 0.08
19-24 5.9 [+ or -] 0.18 2.2 [+ or -] 0.07
25-44 6.5 [+ or -] 0.10 2.4 [+ or -] 0.04
45-64 7.2 [+ or -] 0.12 2.6 [+ or -] 0.04
65+ 8.0 [+ or -] 0.19 2.9 [+ or -] 0.07
Adults 19+ 6.9 [+ or -] 0.07 2.5 [+ or -] 0.03
RS as % of total starch intake
Female
Mean [+ or -] SEM Mean [+ or -] SEM
Age group (years) (RS max) (RS min)
2-3 6.7 [+ or -] 0.35 2.6 [+ or -] 0.12
4-7 6.5 [+ or -] 0.27 2.6 [+ or -] 0.10
8-11 5.9 [+ or -] 0.20 2.3 [+ or -] 0.09
12-15 5.9 [+ or -] 0.21 2.3 [+ or -] 0.09
16-18 6.0 [+ or -] 0.25 2.2 [+ or -] 0.09
19-24 7.8 [+ or -] 0.81 3.0 [+ or -] 0.37
25-44 7.2 [+ or -] 0.11 2.7 [+ or -] 0.04
45-64 8.2 [+ or -] 0.16 3.1 [+ or -] 0.07
65+ 8.6 [+ or -] 0.17 3.2 [+ or -] 0.07
Adults 19+ 7.8 [+ or -] 0.11 3.0 [+ or -] 0.05
Table 4. Foods contributing to resistant starch intake
Age group Male
Foods providing greatest proportion (%) of daily RS
(years) intake
Based on RS max Based on RS min
2-3 Bananas (a) (30%) Bananas (30%)
Potatoes (b) (24%) White breads (c) (10%)
4-7 Potatoes (22%) Bananas (21%)
Bananas (20%) Bread (11%)
8-11 Potatoes (32%) Bananas (16%)
Bananas (14%) White breads (14%)
12-15 Potatoes (35%) White breads (14%)
White breads (9%) Bananas (10%)
16-18 Potatoes (42%) White breads (14%)
White breads (8%) Potato crisps (11%)
19-24 Potatoes (35%) White breads (16%)
Bananas (11%) Bananas (12%)
25-44 Potatoes (29%) Bananas (16%)
Bananas (15%) White Bread (12%)
45-64 Potatoes (31%) Bananas (18%)
Bananas (15%) White breads (10%)
65+ Potatoes (32%) Bananas (21%)
Bananas (17%) Carrots (9%)
All persons Potatoes (30%) Bananas (17%)
Bananas (14%) White breads (11%)
Age group Female
Foods providing greatest proportion (%) of daily RS
(years) intake
Based on RS max Based on RS min
2-3 Bananas (25%) Bananas (27%)
Potatoes (24%) White breads (10%)
4-7 Potatoes (24%) Bananas (22%)
Bananas (21%) White breads (12%)
8-11 Potatoes (32%) Bananas (16%)
Bananas (15%) White breads (13%)
12-15 Potatoes (37%) Potato crisps (d) (14%)
Bananas (9%) White breads (14%)
16-18 Potatoes (36%) White breads (14%)
Bananas (10%) Bananas (12%)
19-24 Potatoes (30%) Bananas (17%)
Bananas (16%) Pasta (e) (10%)
25-44 Potatoes (26%) Bananas (20%)
Bananas (18%) White breads (9%)
45-64 Potatoes (27%) Bananas (24%)
Bananas (21%) Carrots (f) (9%)
65+ Potatoes (28%) Bananas (28%)
Bananas (23%) Carrots (10%)
All persons Potatoes (28%) Bananas (21%)
Bananas (19%) White breads (9%)
(a) Bananas (1651).
(b) Potatoes (2311).
(c) White breads (1221).
(d) Potato crisps (2511).
(e) Pasta (1251).
(f) Carrots and similar root vegetables (2331).
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11. Muir JG, O'Dea K. Validation of an in vitro assay for predicting the amount of starch that escapes digestion in the small intestine of humans. Am J Clin Nutr 1993;57:540-6. 12. Cassidy A. Bingham SA, Cummings JH. Starch intake and colorectal cancer colorectal cancer Malignant tumour of the large intestine (colon) or rectum. Risk factors include age (after age 50), family history of colorectal cancer, chronic inflammatory bowel diseases, benign polyps, physical inactivity, and a diet high in fat. risk: an international comparison. Br J Cancer, 1994;69:937-42. 13. Birkett AM, Mathers JC. Jones GP. Walker KZ, Roth MJ, Muir JG. Changes to the quantity and processing of starchy foods in a Western diet can increase polysaccharides escaping digestion and improve in vitro fermentation fermentation, process by which the living cell is able to obtain energy through the breakdown of glucose and other simple sugar molecules without requiring oxygen. Fermentation is achieved by somewhat different chemical sequences in different species of organisms. variables. Br J Nutr 2000;84:63-72. 14. Muir JG, Birkett A, Brown I, Jones G, O'Dea K. Food processing Food processing is the set of methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients into food for consumption by humans or animals. The food processing industry utilises these processes. and maize variety affects amounts of starch escaping digestion in the small intestine. Am J Clin Nutr 1995;61:82-9. 15. Dysseler P, Hoffem D. Estimation estimation In mathematics, use of a function or formula to derive a solution or make a prediction. Unlike approximation, it has precise connotations. In statistics, for example, it connotes the careful selection and testing of a function called an estimator. of resistant starch intake in Europe. In: Proceedings of the concluding plenary meeting of EURESTA, April 1994. European Flair--Concerted Action No. 11 (COST 911). Asp G, van Amelsvoort JMM JMM John Mark Ministries JMM Journal of Medical Microbiology JMM Jharkhand Mukti Morcha (India) JMM J-M Manufacturing (plastic pipe producer) JMM Malmo, Sweden - Malmo Harbour Heliport , Hautvast JGAJ, editors. Wageningen: European Commission European Commission, branch of the governing body of the European Union (EU) invested with executive and some legislative powers. Located in Brussels, Belgium, it was founded in 1967 when the three treaty organizations comprising what was then the European Community . p 84-6. 16. Brighenti F, Casiraghi MC, Baggio C. Resistant starch in the Italian diet. Br J Nutr 1998;80:333-41. 17. Elmstahl HL. Resistant starch content in a selection of starchy foods on the Swedish market. Eur J Clin Nutr 2002;56:500-5. 18. Walker KZ. Birkett A. Lu ZX. Jones G, O'Dea K. Muir JG. Development of a simulated Australian diet for adults which may have use as a research tool. Aust J Nutr Diet 1997;54:190-7. 19. Baghurst PA, Baghurst KI, Record SJ. Dietary fibre, non-starch polysaccharides and resistant starch. A review. Food Australia 1996;48Suppl:1S-36S. 20. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 1995 National Nutrition Survey. Confidentialised Unit Record File, Information Paper, Cat. No. 4807.0, Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics 1998. 21. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 1995 National Nutrition Survey Users Guide, Catalogue No 4801.0. Canberra: Australian Bureau of Statistics: 1998. 22. Gelroth JA. Ranhotra GS. Determination of resistant starch in selected grain foods. AOAC International, 2000;83:988-991. 23. Englyst HN. Cummings JH. Digestion of polysaccharides of potato in the small intestine of man. Am J Clin Nutr 1987;45:431-2. 24. Englyst HN. Veenstra J. Hudson GJ. Measurement of rapidly available glucose (RAG) in plant foods: apotential in vitro predictor of the glycaemic response. Br J Nutr 1996;75:327-37. 25. Cummings JH. Englyst HN. Digestion of the carbohydrate carbohydrate, any member of a large class of chemical compounds that includes sugars, starches, cellulose, and related compounds. These compounds are produced naturally by green plants from carbon dioxide and water (see photosynthesis). of banana (Musa paradisiaca sapientum) in the human small intestine. Am J Clin Nutr 1986;44:42-50. 26. Birkett AM, Jones GP de Silva sil·va also syl·va n. pl. sil·vas or sil·vae 1. The trees or forests of a region. 2. A written work on the trees or forests of a region. AM. Muir JG. Young GP. Dietary intake and excretion of carbohydrate by Australians: importance of achieving stool stool (stldbomacl) feces. rice-water stools the watery diarrhea of cholera. silver stool weights greater than 150 g to improve faecal markers relevant to colon cancer colon cancer, cancer of any part of the colon (often called the large intestine). Colon cancer is the second most common cancer diagnosed in the United States. risk. Eur J Clin Nutr 1997;51:625-32. School of Health Sciences, Deakin University .*R1 refers to Academics' rankings in tables 3.1 - 3.7 in the report. R2 refers to Articles and Research rankings in tables 5.1 - 5.7. No. refers to the number of institutions compared with Deakin. . , Geelong, Victoria This article is about the Victorian city; the name may also refer to City of Geelong or Geelong city centre. Geelong is the second largest city in the state of Victoria, Australia and is the largest regional centre in the state. J. Roberts, MHN MHN Men's Health Network MHN Mental Health Nursing MHN Mental Health Net MHN Main Hoon Na (Hindi movie) MHN Mullen, Nebraska (airport code) , Graduate Student G.P. Jones, PhD, Associate Professor I.H.E. Rutishauser, MSc, Honorary Fellow C. Gibbons Famous people named Gibbons include:
National Starch and Chemical Company, Bridgewater, NJ, USA A.M. Birkett, PhD, Research Scientist Correspondence: G.P. Jones, School of Health Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong VIC VIC Victor VIC Victoria (State of Australia) VIC Victory VIC Victim (police slang) VIC Vicinity VIC Vicar VIC Vicarage VIC Virtual Information Center (APAN) 3217. Email: gwyn@deakin.edu.au |
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