Research update: the power of positive psychology: the paradigm shifts from problem-solving to optimism.

The traditional focus of many professionals in health and human services is reducing problems within the community. Youth workers attempt to reduce the school drop-out rate, teen pregnancy and youth drug and alcohol abuse. Urban planners want to decrease urban blight, traffic congestion and crime. Medical professionals attempt to treat diseases and conditions, many of which are created by unhealthy lifestyles. Psychologists and other mental health workers try to understand and treat conditions, such as depression, anxiety and conduct disorders. Yet despite all of these efforts, the problems remain and professionals become discouraged (Benson, 1997; Kretzmann & McKnight, 1993). What all of these examples have in common is a societal focus on the removal of problems, rather than cultivating individuals and communities.

But a paradigm shift is emerging that could change this outlook. Professionals and other community members are beginning to realize that the removal of problems, by itself, does not automatically result in vibrant, connected or holistically healthy individuals (Pittman, 2003). The focus is shifting increasingly toward creating the optimal societal conditions rather than treating what it wants to avoid. Nowhere is that paradigm shift more apparent than in the discipline of positive psychology.

The aim of positive psychology is to study, identify and amplify the strengths and capacities that individuals, families and society need to thrive (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Paradoxically, the things that allow people to experience deep happiness, wisdom, and psychological, physical and social well-being are the same strengths that buffer against stress and physical and mental illness (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi). Leisure plays a central role in positive psychology and in helping individuals and communities achieve their highest potential.

Well-Being and the Meaningful Life

One psychological framework that shows promise for understanding happiness and the development of one's full potential is that of well-being (Vaillant, 2002). Ryan and Deci (2001) recently reviewed this literature and suggested that there are two primary approaches to the study of well-being. The first approach is hedonic or subjective well-being. This approach views well-being as the presence of positive mood and life satisfaction. Well-being, then, is feeling good more often than feeling bad.

The second approach to the study of well-being is psychological well-being. Psychological well-being is tied to personal growth and the cultivation of one's full potential (Fava & Riuni, 2003; Keyes, 2003). Individuals experiencing psychological well-being have a sense of autonomy, competence, self-acceptance, belongingness and purpose (Fava & Riuni).

Seligman (2002) suggests that an individual who is experiencing psychological well-being is leading the "good life," which is an essential component to authentic happiness. Also included in well-being is a sense of social connectedness and contribution (Keyes). According to Seligman, only an individual who can step beyond personal boundaries can experience the "meaningful life."

At times, leisure service providers have had to defend the importance of their services, yet many leisure professionals struggle to explain the value of the simple pleasures associated with involvement in recreation. Leisure, as a context for fun and enjoyment, was considered less important than other life domains.

However, many leisure service providers are becoming aware of the research supporting the benefits of leisure, and designing programs that intentionally use leisure services to promote positive physical, emotional and social health. They are strategically repositioning their services as a community benefit (Crompton & Kaczynski, 2004). The positive psychology movement provides significant support for the importance of pleasure and positive emotion in life.

Positive Emotion and Physical Well-Being

In a recent book entitled, Feeling Good is Good for You, Charnetski and Brennan (2001) provided research support suggesting that the creation of positive emotions has direct, positive consequences on physical health. Positive emotion is related to longevity (Danner, Snowden, & Friesen, 2001), perception of good health in older adults (Vaillant, 2002) and decreased loss of functional status and mobility (Ostir, Markides, Black & Goodwin, 2000). When people experience a positive feeling, their immune function improves (Charnetski & Brennan, 2001) and their bodies become more capable of fighting off infections. It has long been known that stress contributes to heart disease. There is increasing evidence that positive emotion makes a unique contribution to heart health (McCraty, Atkinson, Tiller, Rein & Watkins, 1995).

Positive Emotion and Psychological Health

Positive emotions have long been associated with psychological health because the), contribute to positive coping. Some coping models suggest that positively coping with life circumstances leads to positive effects (Diener & Lucas, 1999). It feels good to successfully resolve a troubling situation, to put one's mind at ease and to relax. Other authors (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2000) suggest that experiencing positive emotion is, in itself; a coping strategy. For example, the use of humor (Kuiper, Martin & Olinger, 1993), involvement in daily pleasurable activities (Menec, 2003; Zautra, 1996) and pursuit of one's leisure "passions" (Wrzesniewski, Rozin & Bennet, 2003) are associated with successful copino In addition, research suggests that individuals who are feeling happy are less likely to feel threatened by events in their lives, and therefore stressed, in the first place.

The positive emotions that result from engagement in leisure activities have many positive psychological consequences. The positive experiences can lead to an enhanced ability to cope with the challenges of life. The ability to cope can stave off the illnesses of depression and anxiety and contribute to feelings of competence. Just as importantly, the positive emotions that result from leisure can contribute to the individual's receptivity to new and challenging life experiences, which in turn, leads to personal growth and a never ending spiral of personal evolution.

Positive Emotion and Social Health

Positive emotion can also benefit one's social health. Positive social engagement, in turn, can improve one's mental and physical health. Research shows that individuals whose faces reflect happiness in their early years are more likely to be married, have high life satisfaction and be appealing to others in later life (Harker & Keltner, 2001). These authors suggested that happy people attract others, including potential mates, and bring a positive tone to their relationships.

This expression of positive energy creates a reciprocal response in the other person, and the happiness is perpetuated. Depressed people are less likely to foster these positive exchanges, and are also much less likely to get married (Argyle, 2001). There are many benefits to having a strong marriage and close friendships. A happy marriage is clearly associated with good mental and physical health (Argyle, 2001; Vaillant, 2002). Having supportive and caring relationships has been associated with positive mental and physical health (Ryff & Singer, 2000) and longevity (Ornish, 1998).

Studies indicate that social activities and physical intimacy are the most common sources of positive emotions (Argyle, 2001). Volunteering and other altruistic behaviors are also a strong source of positive emotion (Argyle). Helping others results in feelings of joy in the giver. Giving support rather than receiving it from others has been associated also with longevity (Brown, Nesse, Vinokur & Smith, 2003).

Clearly, leisure is a context for initiating, maintaining and rejuvenating social relationships. Positive effect will enhance the social bonds formed in these leisure contexts, which will, in turn, further enhance positive feelings, as well as contribute to positive physical and mental health. Without a doubt, experiencing pleasure and positive emotion in the moment is important in day-to-day well-being.

There are many identified benefits associated with experiencing positive emotion, and leisure may be an excellent context in which to build capacity for pleasure. Interestingly, an individual's ability to perceive pleasure is influenced by the way he or she perceives the world, and this perceptual style of optimism is related.

Creating Positive Emotion Through Leisure

So, how are positive emotions created? Current research suggests that one cannot create positive emotions simply by removing negative emotions (Lykken, 2000). For example, the removal of stress does not result in happiness. Research suggests that positive and negative emotions and thought processes are largely independent state and trait dimensions (Larsen, McGraw & Cacioppo, 2001; Lykken & Tellegen, 1996). Evidence suggests that the neural circuitry and bio-behavioral systems for positive and negative emotion and cognition are distinct from one another (Taylor, Kemeny, Reed, Bower & Gruenewald, 2000; Watson, 2002). What this means is that the cultivation of positive emotions has to be an undertaking that is separate from the reduction of negative emotion.

There is also evidence that suggests that our ability to experience positive emotion is preset to a large extent. A large scale study conducted by Lykken and Tellegen (1996) found that one's tendency to experience positive and negative emotions has a genetic component. We all know people who maintain a zest for each day and a sense of humor regardless of their actual circumstances, while others seem to experience little joy in their daily lives, despite their good fortunes.

Although there is a genetic influence on happiness, Lykken (2000) suggested strongly that individuals can intentionally cultivate their capacity to experience positive emotion. An individual who maximizes his or her capacity for positive emotion stands to reap great rewards, including better physical, emotional and social health.

Cultivating Capacity to Experience Positive Emotion

There are a number of strategies that can be used to maximize levels of happiness in one's life. Interestingly, many of these strategies have direct connections to leisure. In fact, leisure involvement has been linked to the experience of positive emotion and mood (Hills & Argyle, 1998). "Leisure activities are voluntarily undertaken, therefore it is to be expected that individuals participate in them for enjoyment" (Hills & Argyle, p. 523).

Involvement in any type of leisure is linked to the experience of pleasure, however active engagement in recreation has an even greater impact on mood and pleasure than does passive engagement (DiLorenzo, Prue & Scott, 1987; Lykken, 2000; Seligman, 2002). Moreover, involvement in social or physical activity results in the greatest increase in positive emotion (Watson, 2002), followed by music, art and outdoor activities (Argyle, 2001).

One of the most potent ways to increase happiness in life is to avoid habituation, i.e., engaging in the same experience many times. "Repeated indulgence in the same pleasure does not work ... neurons are wired to respond to novel events and not to fire if the events do not provide new information" (Seligman, 2002, p. 105). As a result, one means for increasing positive mood and emotion is through novelty, surprise and challenge (Lykken, 2000).

The leisure context is certainly one in which novelty, experimentation and exploration can occur. Participants can explore various activities to determine which ones bring the most enjoyment; they can incorporate a variety of large and small leisure moments into their days as a way of avoiding habituation.

Another important strategy for increasing happiness that is directly related to leisure involvement and leisure services is to increase the number of daily pleasurable events (Lykken, 2000; Watson, 2002). To a great extent, the balance of positive and negative affect that one experiences in life will determine one's level of happiness. In fact, one large "happy" event does not outweigh numerous "small" negative events (Diener, Suh, Lucas & Smith, 1999).

As such, the incorporation of many small pleasurable experiences in daily life greatly impacts overall levels of happiness and positive emotion. Clearly, leisure experiences can be one of these means through which to create positive experiences in daily life.

The final strategy related to increasing levels of happiness is the purposeful attention to the pleasurable aspects of an experience. This is accomplished through paying close attention to the pleasure (savoring) (Lykken, 2000; Seligman, 2002), and through reliving the positive aspects of experiences through reminiscence and story telling (Seligman). Leisure service providers who want to help their participants gain maximum benefit from leisure experiences can cue their participants to focus on the pleasure inherent in the experience, and facilitate ways to relive those pleasurable moments.

Conclusion

The park and recreation field has always been unique among professions in its dedication to providing services that enhance the enjoyment of life (Estes & Henderson, 2003). Through leisure education, it also helps people acquire the attitudes, knowledge and skills necessary to create optimal, enjoyable leisure experiences for themselves. The literature arising from the positive psychology movement provides significant evidence that pleasurable activity and experience are essential for individual and community well-being.

The fact that leisure involvement results in enjoyment, increased levels of positive emotion and enhanced overall well-being lends powerful support for the importance of the leisure service profession in a community. Moreover, the positive psychology research that examines how to increase positive emotion and experience also provides support and direction for the leisure education efforts of the profession. The emerging literature allows leisure service professionals to hone their services and move forward into the future with renewed confidence and pride in the value of what they do.

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RELATED ARTICLE: Research into action: promoting positive emotion through leisure services.

Help community constituents understand the research on the importance of positive emotion in the well-being of individuals and communities. Provide marketing and informational materials that inform consumers about the importance of positive emotion through leisure. This consumer education aids in the repositioning of recreation as an essential community benefit. It renews leisure service providers' commitment to the provision of an essential community service. Most importantly, it helps individuals in the community to value the role of active leisure in their lives, an essential prerequisite to the behavioral change leading to the enhancement of well-being.

Provide program participants with opportunities to experience enjoyment through optimally challenging, engrossing experiences. Assess the skill levels of participants and provide programs for individuals with a variety of skill levels and avenues for their on-going skill development. Facilitate intrinsic motivation through opportunities for experiencing self-determination, competence, relatedness, learning and fun. Help participants establish goals, provide feedback and facilitate warm and personal interactions. Provide environments that enhance immersion in leisure experiences by reducing distractions, disorganization and frustration.

Encourage meaningful social interaction among community members, as well as involvement in the arts. Facilitate spaces and activities that promote real community and civic engagement, such as community gardens, volunteering, neighborhood nights, community cleanups, town meetings, arts in the parks and outdoor symphonies. Facilitate understanding of the importance of making a contribution to something greater than oneself for well-being. Encourage community participation in leisure service policy and program decisions.

Incorporate a leisure and self-awareness component into agency programming. Help individuals to enhance their level of positive emotions by becoming more aware of the opportunities for positive emotion in their daily lives, recognizing and savoring these pleasures, and renewing the emotions through reminiscence. Facilitate debriefing sessions after programs. For example, after a yoga class the leader could discuss other means available to participants to bring relaxation and positive affect into their lives. Offer leisure education classes for individuals who want to explore how to put more enjoyment into their lives.

Work with other agencies in the community who are committed to the physical, social and emotional well-being of community members. Collaborate with human and health care agencies to develop programs and information materials on leisure and well-being for consumers who may not access traditional recreation programs. These agencies could include schools, businesses, hospitals, prevention programs, family resource centers, faith communities and senior centers. Work with media to educate the public on the importance of active leisure for optimal well-being.

Cynthia Carruthers is an associate professor at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, in the Leisure Studies Program. Her research interests include the role of leisure in positive coping and well-being.

Colleen Dwell Hood is chair and associate professor at Brock University in Canada in the Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies. Her research interests relate to well-being and leisure, in particular as they relate to therapeutic recreation practice.