Research update: components of urban park systems: although oceans apart, the United States and Hong Kong display similar urban park characteristics.Urban parks have played a unique and indispensable role in providing recreation opportunities and functions to urban populations. As a result of population growth and density, the sustainability of urban parks is a challenging management task. There exists a need to adopt effective management strategies for achieving the sustainable development Sustainable development is a socio-ecological process characterized by the fulfilment of human needs while maintaining the quality of the natural environment indefinitely. The linkage between environment and development was globally recognized in 1980, when the International Union and management of urban parks. While recreation management frameworks for outdoor recreation such as Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (ROS ROS, n.pr See reactive oxygen species. ), Carrying Capacity carrying capacity the number of animal units that a farm or area will carry on a year round basis, including that needed for conservation of winter feed. Usually stated as dry cows or dry sheep equivalents per hectare. (CC), Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) and Visitor Impact Management (VIM (Vendor Independent Messaging Interface) A programming interface developed by Lotus, Novell, IBM and others. In order to enable an application to send and receive mail over a VIM-compliant messaging system such as cc:Mail, programmers write to the VIM interface. ) have been extensively used (Pigram and Jenkins, 1999), particularly in the U.S., they may also be used in an urban setting through necessary modifications and research. These frameworks are based on indicators and standards of quality that define recreation opportunities and management objectives (Manning, 1999). Indicators, in park and recreation science and elsewhere, are measurable and specific parameters that reflect the resource conditions and provide impetus Impetus is a stimulus or impulse, a moving force that sparks momentum. Impetus may also refer to:
tr. & intr.v. in·ter·re·lat·ed, in·ter·re·lat·ing, in·ter·re·lates To place in or come into mutual relationship. in and classifiable clas·si·fy tr.v. clas·si·fied, clas·si·fy·ing, clas·si·fies 1. To arrange or organize according to class or category. 2. To designate (a document, for example) as confidential, secret, or top secret. according to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. their degree of importance. Prior to designating a management framework and relevant indicators for urban parks, it is essential to examine components that are included in an urban park system, some of which can have universal relevance. What are the important aspects of urban parks perceived by park managers and users? Are there any similarities and differences between urban parks of different territories? These are some of the questions that can be answered and used for the benefit of park resources and users. Components and Indicators of an Urban Park System in the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. A large-scale project was conducted by the Trust for Public Land (TPL 1. TPL - Table Producing Language. "The Bureau of Labor Statistics Table Producing Language (TPL)", R.C. Mendelssohn, Proc ACM Annual Conf (1974). 2. TPL - Fleming Nielson. A concurrent functional language. 3. ), to investigate the factors contributing to an excellent and successful urban park system in the U.S. (Harnik, 2003). The organization has recognized that city parks are vital and valuable components for urban populations. With the coordination of the public sector, the organization convened a multi-faceted group of 25 urban and park experts for an intensive two-day meeting. After collating comments and information provided by experts and professionals, key indicators of an urban park system called "broad measures of an excellent urban park system" were generated. The indicators were classified into seven measures or categories. The project further used a mailed survey to collect information from 69 directors of park and recreation systems in major U.S. cities, in order to determine the successfulness of urban park management. The seven measures and key questions identified by the experts are shown in Table 1 on page 27. Case Study of Hong Kong Hong Kong (hŏng kŏng), Mandarin Xianggang, special administrative region of China, formerly a British crown colony (2005 est. pop. 6,899,000), land area 422 sq mi (1,092 sq km), adjacent to Guangdong prov. Although Hong Kong is a city covering about 1,100 square kilometers, it consists of 22 major urban parks and more than 1,350 small parks and green spaces that provide recreation opportunities for urban populations (LCSD LCSD Leisure and Cultural Services Department (Hong Kong) LCSD Logan City School District LCSD Left Cardiac Sympathetic Denervation LCSD Lee County School District (Lee County, Florida) , 2004). These urban green spaces are jointly managed by the Leisure and Cultural Services Department The Leisure and Cultural Services Department (Traditional Chinese: 康樂及文化事務署 (LCSD). In Chan's (2005) study of urban parks in Hong Kong, four major multi-functional parks were selected. Earlier, a list of preliminary urban park indicators was produced. Since there is no existing indicator study in Hong Kong, the preliminary indicators were adapted through reviewing literature and government documents of various territories (Mertes and Hall, 1995; Ammons, 2001; Coles and Caserio, 2001; South Ayrshire South Ayrshire (Siorrachd Inbhir Àir a Deas in Gaelic) is one of 32 council areas of Scotland, covering the southern part of Ayrshire. It borders onto East Ayrshire, North Ayrshire and Dumfries and Galloway. Council, 2001; Harnik, 2003; Parks Canada Parks Canada (now also known as the Parks Canada Agency) is a Government of Canada agency that is mandated to protect and present nationally significant examples of Canada's natural and cultural heritage and foster public understanding, appreciation and enjoyment in ways that , 2003; Canvar, Kirtland, Evans, Wilson, Williams Wilson, (William Griffith) “Bill W.” (1895–1971) founder of Alcoholics Anonymous; born in East Dorset, Vt. Alcoholism ran in his family and he suffered from a strong sense of inferiority and separation from other people. , Mixon, and Henderson, 2004). Since the preliminary indicators were assembled from various sources, they were further authenticated au·then·ti·cate tr.v. au·then·ti·cat·ed, au·then·ti·cat·ing, au·then·ti·cates To establish the authenticity of; prove genuine: a specialist who authenticated the antique samovar. for local use through a filtering process involving 22 major urban park managers, 8 park-related academics and 123 park users. The preliminary indicators were filtered and reduced to a list of 42 indicators. Examples of indicators are shown in Table 2 on page 28. Consequently, a sample of 617 park users participated in rating the parks on each of the 42 indicators. The respondents In the context of marketing research, a representative sample drawn from a larger population of people from whom information is collected and used to develop or confirm marketing strategy. rated the level of importance of each indicator based on a five-point Likert-type scale. Through statistical analysis, the number of indicators were further reduced to 33, then categorized cat·e·go·rize tr.v. cat·e·go·rized, cat·e·go·riz·ing, cat·e·go·riz·es To put into a category or categories; classify. cat and titled according to the nature of the core indicators in park management perspectives. Although studies of urban parks can vary from place to place, the relevance of such investigations can be applicable because most urban parks share some of the same characteristics: large visitation VISITATION. The act of examining into the affairs of a corporation. 2. The power of visitation is applicable only to ecclesiastical and eleemosynary corporations. 1 Bl. Com. 480; 2 Kid on Corp. 174. , proximity to densely-populated communities, limited or modified ecosystems and intensive management. Components in the United States and Hong Kong When comparing the aspects identified in the current study with two previous studies of urban parks in the U.S., similarities and differences were discernible dis·cern·i·ble adj. Perceptible, as by the faculty of vision or the intellect. See Synonyms at perceptible. dis·cern  i·bly adv. (Table 3 on page 29). Cohen cohenor kohen (Hebrew: “priest”) Jewish priest descended from Zadok (a descendant of Aaron), priest at the First Temple of Jerusalem. The biblical priesthood was hereditary and male. and Eimicke (1998) found that the factors that were highly ranked were mostly related to park environment and availability of facilities. In addition, safety and cleanliness Cleanliness See also Orderliness. Cleverness (See CUNNING.) Berchta unkempt herself, demands cleanliness from others, especially children. [Ger. Folklore: Leach, 137] cat continually “washes” itself. factors were similarly highly ranked by the park users in New York New York, state, United States New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of . The results of Harnik's study were vindicated in Chart's (2005) study as a relatively similar classification of management aspects unraveled. Nevertheless, some differences were also observed. For instance, Harnik (2003) grouped "sufficient assets, staffing and equipment" into one component, entitled en·ti·tle tr.v. en·ti·tled, en·ti·tling, en·ti·tles 1. To give a name or title to. 2. To furnish with a right or claim to something: "measure of an excellent urban park system." Chan's (2005) study discovered three components: park facilities and environmental quality, staff management and park finance. Their study also classified users' satisfaction into two components as reflections on park usage and users' complaints about resources and environment. Furthermore, the study found that the educational function of urban parks is one component, instead of broadly incorporating it into the benefits of parks beyond the park boundaries. Similarities in components reported in these studies show that there are a number of core aspects to be managed in urban park systems, making the task a universal one. A management and sustainability framework of urban parks therefore needs to be developed for park resource managers and authority. Performance of some of the urban park indicators may also be compared and measured as benchmarks. However, differences between park systems implied that indicators cannot be universally adoptable. It is therefore essential to select appropriate indicators according to themes and characteristics of urban parks. Conclusion This study further supported what scholars have said: indicators and management of urban parks are not universally adoptable in most circumstances CIRCUMSTANCES, evidence. The particulars which accompany a fact. 2. The facts proved are either possible or impossible, ordinary and probable, or extraordinary and improbable, recent or ancient; they may have happened near us, or afar off; they are public or . Since each urban park may possess specific inventory and characteristics, the development of specific indicators for each thematic the·mat·ic adj. 1. Of, relating to, or being a theme: a scene of thematic importance. 2. park is a potential area that needs further investigation. Although the work in Hong Kong is a pioneer study, it has only begun to address the fundamental need to develop indicators or similar assessment tools for evaluating the conditions of urban parks in cities, with the aim of achieving improved and sustainable urban park management. The study has also highlighted the need for articulating the views of management, academics and users in urban park monitoring, management and development. Such a multi-disciplinary approach in urban park management should be advocated and implemented, particularly where there is a large visitor patronage Patronage See also Philanthropy. Alidoro fairy godfather to Italian Cinderella. [Ital. Opera: Rossini, Cinderella, Westerman, 120–121] Alphonso, Don supports Bias in return for political favors. [Fr. Lit. as the case is, in both the United States and Hong Kong. Research into Action: How to Find Your Urban Park Characteristics For practitioners * Development of management strategies and indicators should not be confined con·fine v. con·fined, con·fin·ing, con·fines v.tr. 1. To keep within bounds; restrict: Please confine your remarks to the issues at hand. See Synonyms at limit. to countryside and protected areas
Protected areas . Urban and suburban areas also contain large number of green spaces with indispensable functions and values. These areas should also be protected and properly managed through adopting effective recreation management frameworks. * Practitioners should examine and use academic studies and reports to improve urban park and recreation planning and management. * Practitioners can play an important role in initiating the development and application of indicators, standards and the subsequent management frameworks by collecting baseline park information in prior of selecting useful indicators. * Parks are provided for the public. More public involvement and participation in urban park planning and management can therefore be encouraged by practitioners and authorities since park users are the major stakeholders Stakeholders All parties that have an interest, financial or otherwise, in a firm-stockholders, creditors, bondholders, employees, customers, management, the community, and the government. for urban parks. For researchers * There has been a gap between academic studies and management practices in reality. Researchers can bridge this academic and information gap by promoting mutual understanding, communication and cooperation between researchers and authorities. * Further studies should be conducted for the applicability of useful indicators for thematic parks with distinctive facilities and characteristics of visitors. * Indicators for multi-functional park and small green spaces are different. Researchers may focus on studying the underlying differences among these green spaces and facilitating the development of appropriate management strategies for the corresponding spaces. References Ammons, D.N. (2001). Municipal benchmarks: assessing local performance and establishing community standards Community standards are local norms bounding acceptable conduct. Sometimes these standards can itemized in a list that states the community's values and sets guidelines for participation in the community. . U.S.: Sage Publication, Inc. Canvar, N.N., Kirtland, K.A., Evans, M.H., Witson, D.K., Williams, J.E., Mixon, G.M. and Henderson, K.A. (2004). Evaluating the quality of recreation facilities: development of an assessment tool. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, 22 (1), pp.96-114. Chan, C.S. (2005). Development of indicators for a sustainable urban park management: Hong Kong as a case study. Unpublished master dissertation dis·ser·ta·tion n. A lengthy, formal treatise, especially one written by a candidate for the doctoral degree at a university; a thesis. dissertation Noun 1. , The Chinese University of Hong Kong The motto of the university is "博文約禮" in Chinese, meaning "to broaden one's intellectual horizon and keep within the bounds of propriety". , Hong Kong. Cohen, S. and Eimicke, W. (1998). Tools for innovators innovators people who will try new things. early innovators important figures in the farming or client community because they are the leaders in the introduction of new techniques and management systems. : creative strategies for managing public sector organizations. San Francisco San Francisco (săn frănsĭs`kō), city (1990 pop. 723,959), coextensive with San Francisco co., W Calif., on the tip of a peninsula between the Pacific Ocean and San Francisco Bay, which are connected by the strait known as the Golden : Jossey-Bass. Coles, R. and Caserio. M. (2001). Social criteria for the evaluation and development of urban green spaces (Project Deliverable 7). UK: Urban Green Environment Project. Harnik, P. (2003). The excellent pork pork, flesh of swine prepared as food, one of the principal commodities of the meatpacking industry. Pork has long been a staple food in most of the world, although religious taboos have limited its use, especially among Jews and Muslims. system. The United States: The Trust for Public Land. Leisure and Cultural Services Department (LCSD) (2004). Statistics reports. Available: www.lcsd. gov.hk/en/ppr_statistic statistic, n a value or number that describes a series of quantitative observations or measures; a value calculated from a sample. statistic a numerical value calculated from a number of observations in order to summarize them. _ls.php. Manning, R.E. (1999). Studies in outdoor recreation (2nd ed.). Corvallis: Oregon State University Press Oregon State University Press, or OSU Press, founded in 1961, is a university press that publishes roughly 15 titles per year and is part of the Oregon State University. . Mertes, J.D. and Hall, J.R. (1995). Park, recreation, open space and greenery guidelines guidelines, n.pl a set of standards, criteria, or specifications to be used or followed in the performance of certain tasks. . U.S.: National Recreation and Park Association Printing Office. Parks Canada. (2003). Performance report for the period ending March 31, 2003. Available: www.tbs-sct.gc.ca/rma/dpr/02-03/PC-PC/ PC-PC03D01_e.asp. Pigram, J.J. and Jenkins, J.M. (1999). Outdoor recreation management. London: Routledge. South Ayrshire Council Environment, Land and Property Roads, Parks and Waste Management. (2001). Parks and Public Open Spaces Recreation and Landscape Strategy. Scotland: South Ayrshire Council. Chan Chung Shing is a recent master's graduate from the Department of Geography and Resource Management, The Chinese University of Hong Kong. His thesis studied "Sustainable Urban Park Management in Hong Kong." He is currently working for the Hong Kong government. Lawal M. Marafa is a professor at the Department of Geography and Resource Management, The Chinese University of Hong Kong. His teaching and research interests include leisure and eco-tourism, tourism and environment, recreation planning and management.
Table 1: Seven broad measures of an excellent city park system
Measure Key questions (Extracts)
A clear [check] Does your agency have, and make available
expression to the public, a written legislative
of purpose mandate?
A written mission statement? A written
set of defined core services?
[check] Does your agency publish a publicly
available annual report? Does it
provide hard, numerical information
on outcome? Does it provide
useful budget numbers?
Ongoing [check] Is your park and recreation plan
planning and integrated into the full city-wide
community comprehensive plan?
involvement
[check] Does the agency have an official citizen
advisory board or similar community
involvement mechanism that
meets regularly?
Sufficient [check] What was your agency's total actual
assets in land, revenue in the most recent
staffing and completed fiscal year,
equipment to including both operating funds and
meet the capital funds?
systems'
goals [check] How many natural resources professionals--
horticulturists, foresters and landscape
architects--do you have on staff?
[check] How much did your agency spend in the past
fiscal year, including maintenance,
programming, capital construction
and land acquisition?
Equitable [check] Do you know the distance from every
access residence to its nearest park? If so,
what percentage of city residents
are located more than one-quarter
mile from a park of at
least one acre in size?
[check] Is there a formal disability advisory
group to assist in meeting the physical
and programming mission
of your park system?
User [check] Is there at least one
satisfaction full-time person in the
park agency devoted to
surveying park users
and non-users, and
analyzing the surveys?
Safety from [check] How many uniformed park personnel does
physical hazards your agency have or contract with?
and crime
[check] Do you systematically collect
data on crimes that occur in parks?
Benefits for [check] Does your city systematically collect data
the city beyond comparing property values near parks with
boundaries those farther from parks, and report on
of the parks the findings?
Source: Adapted from Harnik (2003)
Table 2: Examples of the 4.2 indicators generated
after the filtering process
Indicators about park planning policies and management actions
No. Indicator
1 Presence of a written and publicly available legislative mandate
or mission statement that state clearly the purposes of providing,
protecting and developing urban parks
3 Presence of play equipment management and maintenance guidelines
4 Number of checks of facilities and play equipment
5 Percentage of park management staff who possess qualifications
related to ecology, environmental management, landscape
architecture or other park management-related disciplines
10 Presence of an official citizen advisory board or similar
community involvement mechanism that meets regularly
39 Number of community events in urban parks
36 Number of security guards working in the parks
42 Number of school programs or public educational activities
Indicators about environmental quality and hardware facilities
No. Indicator
12 Number of reported cases of facility and equipment damage,
breakage and missing parts
13 Number of park facilities and equipment under deterioration
14 Number and population of typical faunal and floral species
15 Days of water quality exceeding standards
16 Days of air quality exceeding standards
18 Amount of financial funds from the government
38 Proportion of soft landscape or green areas to hardware or
built facilities
Indicators about social responses
No. Indicator
19 Number of facilities for disabled people
22 Number of Web site hits or inquiries for urban park information
25 Number of complaints relating to conflicting use of facilities
29 Visitor assessment of favorite and least favorite park facilities
31 Number of park visitors
32 Number of positive written comments by visitors
37 Percentage change in perception of safety by park visitors
Table 3: Park management components among studies
Cohen and Eimicke Harnik Current
(1998) (2003) Study
* Safety * Safety from physical * Safety and security
hazards and crime
* Clear expression * Park planning and
of purpose management policies
* Ongoing planning
and community
involvement
* Natural beauty * Sufficient assets, * Park facilities and
* Play equipment staffing and environmental quality
* Bathrooms equipment * Staff management
* Cleanliness * Park finance
* Youth program * Benefits beyond * Educational function
boundaries of parks
* Equitable access * Accessibility to park
usage and information
* User satisfaction * Park usage
* Users' complaints about
park resources and
environment
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