Research on recreation in correctional settings.

The focus of organizations such as NRPA has been to promote recreation as a form of experience that enhances quality of life. These groups also believe that recreation serves as an important preventative measure (and perhaps an alternative) to delinquent acts against society, particularly by youth. Many factors contribute to anti-social activities which result in incarceration, but little proof exists that any one intervention (e.g., participating in "constructive" recreation activity) can solve the problems associated with criminal activity.

The study of recreation in corrections has received little attention. Reasons for limited research have already been acknowledge by Calloway (1981), who discussed the low involvement in corrections by park and recreation/therapeutic recreation professionals. He suggested three reasons for this: preoccupation and consumption of energy and resources by professionals to establish their own legitimacy through accreditation and certification; attitudinal problems linked to the misconception that all people who are incarcerated are violent and dangerous; and the prison system's racial composition, for which the majority of inmates are represented by minorities while the administrative and staff positions primarily are white.

Current Research on Recreation In Youth Corrections

The majority of the research on recreation in corrections continues to focus on youth. Extending previous work, Munson (1988) sought to overcome problems with previous investigations to determine the effectiveness of three intervention treatments (leisure education, physical activity, or informal discussion) on the self-esteem, leisure attitudes, and behaviors of youth offenders with behavior disorders. Even with adjustments in the treatment and methodology, the results did not support the hypothesis that the leisure education treatment would be the most effective treatment. In fact, none of the treatments made a significant impact on self-esteem, leisure attitudes, and behaviors. Among the possible considerations for future study was to extend the length of time of the intervention and to place more emphasis on job related issues (which were of greater interest to the youth) as a part of the work-leisure discussion.

A study by Catalano (1989) of institutionalized juveniles who also were drug users found that specific provision of school, recreational, vocational, and contraceptive counseling services accounted for reduced drug use. Relapse was linked to lack of involvement in productive activities and active leisure (particularly as related to building new social peer groups).

Many of the studies concerning recreation and juvenile offenders have involved adventure-based or wilderness camp programs. Clagett (1989) reported that 85% of ex-campers who participated in a therapeutic wilderness camp program for rehabilitating emotionally-disturbed youngsters, problem teenagers, and delinquents did not recidivate during the initial six months following release.

Troia (1991) found that a specialized, adventure-based project to teach prosocial behavior, independent living skills, and responsibility was effective in slightly lowering the recidivism rate of its graduates as compared to the control groups. Their adult incarceration rate also was lower than l he general population of male juvenile institution releases. An Outward Bound-type program for youth offenders reported by Castellano and Soderstron, (1990) found that after a two-year follow-up, neither participation nor completion of the program made a notable impact on arrest rates. In examining adventure-based programs for juveniles, Roberts and Camasso (1990) determined that the benefit-to-cost ratio of intensive short-term programs of family treatment and wilderness exploration were better than those of other treatment programs studied.

The mixed success of recreational programs to reduce criminal activity or to change attitudes often is attributed to the structure (e.g., length of offering) or content of the programs themselves. Munson (1991) suggested that perhaps a new approach is needed to program development and provided a case study to illustrate the potential for using a Family-Ecological Systems approach. Rather than relying on single programs for youth offender participation, a comprehensive/integrative package is developed. This includes an extensive assessment, collaborative planning between the youth offender and his or her family, a treatment program developed from the assessment and plan, and use of both formative and summative evaluation to adjust the program.

Current Research on Recreation in Adult Corrections

Aguilar and Asmussen (1989) noted that the five major roles of recreation in adult correctional settings are as an institutional adjustment tool, institutional privilege, diversionary service, educational service, and rehabilitative service. Diversionary service is the primary use of recreation in most adult correctional situations. The researchers asked male inmates at a state correctional facility to respond to questions concerning their recreation participation prior to incarceration, intentions to continue participation following release, and acquisition of new recreation skills during incarceration. More than half of the inmates discontinued participation in many of their pre-incarceration recreation activities while in prison. About one-fourth indicated they learned new recreation activities during incarceration. Over 80% said that they planned to continue participation in recreation activity on release from prison. The most frequent activities they engaged in while in prison were watching sports on television, using gym weights, being a spectator in the gym, using the outdoor weights, and hanging out in the gym. More than three-fourths of the respondents indicated that they used recreation facilities at least one hour per day. Younger inmates accounted for most use of recreational facilities per day and the most participation in highly physical recreation as well as less physically-demanding activities.

The results of this study concurred with others which found inmates frequently choose passive pursuits while incarcerated. Limited availability of recreational resources. equipment, and staff could be a potential cause for lack of more constructive uses of time. Examination of patterns for older inmates who were more infrequent in their participation and the development/testing or leisure education and/or leisure counseling techniques were suggested for future research.

Kratcoski and Babb (1990) conducted a study of institutional adjustment by older inmates. They found that gender and institutional structure jointly contributed to adjustment problems. Females were less likely to become involved in sports and general physical exercise than males. Staff indicated that work, educational, and recreational programming for older women was not as available as it was for men.

A three-year project by Stumbo and Little (1991) studied recreation and parenting for women in a state correctional setting. They examined the impact of parenting programs and an overnight camping experience on incarcerated mothers and their children. Using a multidimensional program evaluation model (Little and Stumbo, 1989), 29 weekends of family camping were studied using pre/post camp interviews, paper, pencil instruments for both camping and noncamping mothers, and diaries. Researchers were present each weekend to document the activities through observations with field notes.

Mixed Results

The results were mixed about the success of the program in contributing to mother-child bonding when using quantitative measures (Little and Stumbo, 1991). Increases in prepost camp scores accounted for the perception that the program helped mothers learn more and fee better about themselves and their children and more positive perceptions by mothers about their life in total, their spare time activities, their relationship with their children, the future of their children, and their own evaluation of their success as a parent. Using qualitative information the researchers found the camping experience served as a vehicle for communication, reducing fear by children about the welfare of their mothers, and provided a common experience which became a source of mutual conversation for vis-recreation program opportunities nor to study their impact at the present time, except perhaps in the case of youth offenders.

Reibstein, Carroll, and Bogert (1994) stated that it has become fashionable to target prisons and prisoner as a way to exploit voters, anti-crime sentiment. Politicians have proposed bans on telephones, televisions, basketball, boxing, wrestling, and other recreational and educational opportunities. There is no evidence, however, that banning TVs in prisons will deter crime, while there is evidence that education is one of the few programs that reduce recidivism The retribution rather than rehabilitation view appears to have had no greater success than offering minimal rehabilitative programs in reducing crime (Rogers, 1989). Durham (1994) concluded that despite recent efforts toward reform, problems for corrections will continue in the future "as long as prison construction is regarded as a way to combat, crime" (p. 283).

The evidence to date suggests that complex issues require coordinated and comprehensive interventions or treatments, cutting across a variety of areas, e.g., health, education, and welfare (Rogers, 1989). Current information concerning its role in correctional settings finds that recreation by itself cannot solve the problems linked to criminal activity and incarceration. However, in consort with other activities and programs, it has the potential to improve the situation for both the individual and society when part of an overall rehabilitation/intervention effort. Rotman (1990) noted and Kaiser (1994) confirmed that "many offenders are discharged back into society with minimal or no preparation to face the social problems and handicaps of ex-convicts. A criminal justice system that creates and then ignores imperative individual needs for assistance and re-education is bound to generate more crime" (p. 276). The only group for which there is public sentiment for using treatment and rehabilitation as an approach to delinquent acts are youth . . . and that support is now waning particularly among older Americans, minorities, and others who are in fear of being victimized (Krisberg, Schwartz, and McGarrell, 1993).

Implications for Professionals

Five implications of these studies regarding practice by correctional recreation professionals are the need to: (a) expand the variety of recreation offerings; (b) increase recreational/ educational opportunities for females and older inmates; (c) shift the role of recreation as diversionary activity to educational and rehabilitative roles; (d) include recreation as part of comprehensive programs of intervention in collaboration with other services, and (e) consider the continued inclusion of adventure-based activities for youth and possibly initiate new adventure-based opportunities for adults.

It is clear that the variety of recreation experiences needs to be expanded in correctional settings. Active--as well as passive--social, individual, physical, and mental activities should be included for all incarcerated populations. The need for increased programming for females in all recreation and educational areas, as well as growth in physical activity offerings for females and older inmates, has been recommended. The fact that in one study over half of the inmates discontinued many of their pre-incarceration recreation activities and only a fourth indicated learning new activities during incarceration strongly suggests attention be paid to what type of programming is currently available. Assessment of pre-incarceration recreation patterns of inmates, as part of the intake process, could assist recreation professionals in program planning.

The potential of recreation opportunities to serve educational and rehabilitative roles, in addition to their usual diversionary focus, can be realized when incorporating recreation as part of other intervention opportunities. For example, parenting programs for incarcerated parents not only includes classes in parent-child nutrition but also teaches parents about implementing recreation experiences which enhance social bonding and self-esteem development between the parent and child.

Comprehensive programs, rather than exclusive use of singular events, are essential to the planning repertoire of recreation professionals in correctional settings. The camping programs reported by Little and Stumbo (1989) were comprehensive in nature requiring cooperation in planning and implementation from officials and professional staff, e.g., administration, health, education, social/family services, leisure time services, dietary, ministers, etc. Further, the families of inmates and the inmates themselves can be part of the program development and implementation. High involvement from multiple sources can account for a program's continuation and success.

For youth offenders, active leisure opportunities which relate t o building new social peer groups, along with cooperation from family, are important. These opportunities frequently have been found in adventure-based projects which also were more cost effective than other treatment programs. The success of adventure-based programs for youth might also have potential for adult populations and could provide a new area of program development for the future.

Currently boot camps (shock incarceration) are being widely instituted despite evidence that they are not successful interventions (Katel Liu, and Cohn, 1994). It would be interesting to determine if challenge experiences intended to enhance self-esteem and use cooperation, such as adventure-based programs, would provide a its, letters, and telephone calls after the experience.

Slater, Groves, and Lengfelder (1992) examined recreation and its impact on self-esteem based on type of offense (felony) and age for male inmates in a state correctional institution. Reading and library use were positively correlated with self-esteem for three of the four felony groups. Explanations for this were that these activities involved escape through fantasy and that they were solitary activities which precluded inmates taking negative views of themselves. Religious activities and competitive weightlifting also were positively correlated for two of the felony groups. Radio and music listening, however, were inversely related to self-esteem measures in three of the four felony groups. The researchers speculated that these differences may be attributed to rebelling against the system by becoming uninvolved or that those participating in these activities did not engage in other activities which enhance self-esteem. Implications of the findings suggest that recreation professionals encourage a diversity of involvement in recreation activities and work with participants to help them feel good about their recreation experience.

Although wilderness challenge programs as treatment primarily have been used for youth offenders, Harris, Mealy, and Matthews (1993) provided information on a challenge program for adult offenders on probation. Unlike the extraordinary or singular events designed for juveniles, the program was designed to complement other correctional services. The researchers noted that wilderness treatments are relatively low cost and that this program enhanced probation/parole technologies by motivating offenders to appreciate and benefit from activities which many did not take seriously in the past.

Research Remains Sparse 

Research on recreation in correctional settings remains spars; in particular, few studies concerning adult and juvenile female offender, exist. In addition to reasons cited by Calloway (1981) for the lack of recreation research activity in corrections, there is extreme difficulty in getting access to study populations by researchers. The lack of time and adequate research skills by correctional/therapeutic recreation staff also inhibits studies which could be done internally (Bullock, McGuire, and Barch, 1984). The prevailing view that criminals are to be punished and not rehabilitated further exacerbates the ability to conduct research. The climate is not conducive for improved provision of desirable alternative to shock incarceration programs for both youth and adult offenders.

Access to resources is a limiting factor for recreation professionals in correctional settings. Research literature suggests a number of programmatic efforts which can be implemented, despite the resource constraints. Many of these efforts require creativity and courage on the part of the professional to change the traditional recreation forms that have become expected in penal institutions. Success in instituting change will depend on abilities to obtain support and engage in collaborative activities with professionals in the institutions, advocates for prison reform, legislators, and voters, in addition to the inmates themselves. Research in the form of systematic study and reporting can inform those who control the resources and have the power to make change.

References

Aguilar, T. and Asmussen, K. /1989). An exploration of recreation participation patterns in a correctional facility: A case study. Journal of Offender Counseling, Services & Rehabilitation, 14(1), 67-78.

Bullock, C., McGuire, F., and Barch, E. (1984). Perceived research needs of therapeutic recreation. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 18(3), 17-24.

Calloway, J. (1981, February). Correctional recreation today: A pitiful reflection of past inadequacy. Parks & Recreation, 16(2), 22-28.

Castellano, T. and Soderstrom, I. (1990). Wilderness challenges and recidivism. Carbondale, IL: Center for the Study of Crime, Delinquency and Corrections, Southern Illinois University.

Catalano, R. (1989). Aftercare services for drug-using institutionalized delinquents. Social Service Review 63(4), 553-577.

Clagett, A. (1989). Effective therapeutic wilderness programs for rehabilitating emotionally-disturbed, problem teenagers and delinquents. Journal of Offender Counseling, Services & Rehabilitation, 14(1),79-96.

Durham, A. (1994). Crisis and reform: Current issues in American punishment. Boston, MA: Little, Brown.

Harris, P., Mealy, L., & Matthews, H. (1993). A wilderness challenge program as correctional treatment. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 19(3/41), 149-164.

Kaiser, J. (1994, July/August). Locks and bars: Do they stop crime? Indiana Alumni, 14-17.

Katel, P., Liu, M., and Cohn, R. (1994, February 21). The bust in boot camps. Newsweek, p. 26.

Kratcoski, P. and Babb, S. (1990). Adjustment of older inmates: An analysis by institutional structure and gender. Journal of contemporary Criminal Justice, 6(4), 264-281.

Krisberg, B., Schwartz, I., and McGarrell, E. (1993). Reinventing juvenile justice: Research directions. Crime & Delinquency, 39(1), 3-124.11

Little, S. and Stumbo, N. (1991). Outcomes of an on-grounds family camping experience for incarcerated mothers: Results of a three-year study. Paper presented at the 1991 Leisure Research Symposium, Baltimore, MD.

Little, S. and Stumbo, N. (1989). Development of a multidimensional program evaluation model for a correctional setting. Paper presented at the 1989 Leisure Research Symposium, San Antonio, TX.

Munson, W. (1991). Juvenile delinquency as a societal problem and social disability: The therapeutic recreator's role as ecological change agent. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 24(2), 19-40.

Munson, W. (1988). Effects of leisure education versus physical activity or informal discussion on behaviorally disordered youth offenders. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly. 5(4), 305-317.

Reibstein, L., Carroll, G., and Bogert, C. (1994, October 17). Back to the chain gang? Newsweek, 524(16), 87, 89-90.

Roberts, A. and Camasso, M. (1990). Juvenile offender treatment programs and cost-benefit analysis. Juvenile & Family Court Journal, 42(1), 11-36.

Rogers, J. (1989). The greatest correctional myth: Winning the war on crime through incarceration. Federal Probation, 53(3), 21-28.

Rotman, E. (1990). Beyond punishment: A new view of the rehabilitation of criminal offenders. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

Slater, J., Groves. D., and Lengfelder, J. (1992). Correctional recreation and its impact: Self-esteem components of prison inmates. Psychology: A Journal of Human Behavior, 29(314), 27-39.

Stumbo, N. and Little, S. (1991). Implications for leisure services with incarcerated women. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 24(2), 19-40.

Troia, N. (1991). An evaluation of the SPRITE program. Madison, WI: Wisconsin Department of Health and Social Services.