Research into practice: meeting the needs of all children and beginning teacher development.

This issue highlights seven distinct studies. The first study looks at the educational performance of children who were adopted from Eastern European countries. The second provides evidence on the relationship of economic well-being and cognitive outcomes for children in Paraguay. The third examines the effects of a social and emotional intervention for children in kindergarten classrooms. The fourth is a descriptive study that examines how boys play with superhero toys in child care settings. The fifth is an examination of the impact of adults' presence on the interactions of a child with an emotional and behavioral disorder. The sixth and seventh studies examine the experiences of beginning teachers in their teaching of early literacy and their concerns during their induction year into teaching. This column briefly summarizes the content of the articles and suggests implications for the research as well as areas for future research studies.

Educational Outcomes of Children Adopted From Eastern Europe, Now Ages 8-12 --Tirella, Chan, & Miller

Longitudinal data on the cognitive and physical outcomes of children adopted from Eastern Europe by American families is limited. In the late 1980s, much was made of the conditions of the orphanages and institutions for infants and toddlers in Romania. While there is clear evidence that many children adopted from such settings in Eastern European countries are more at risk for medical concerns and developmental delay, research that follows these children into their elementary school experience is lacking. As noted in recent research (Groza & Ryan, 2002; Rutter, English, & Romanian Adoptees Study Team, 1998), the learning difficulties and emotional concerns of this group of children present issues for families and schools.

The current descriptive study focused on children and their families from three adoption-related organizations: an international adoption clinic, a private neuropsychological practice, and an adoption agency. The children selected for the study were between the ages of 8 and 12 and were adopted from the following Eastern European countries: Russia, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Lithuania, Moldova, Latvia, and Belarus: The 32 percent return rate for the survey included 81 children, of whom 33 were males and 48 were females. The survey included 61 questions on background information of the child and adoptive parents, medical and disabilities information on the child, types of post-adoption services and supports, and experiences that the family had with their adoptive child's school.

The survey results indicated that adoptive children ranged in age from 1 to 8 at the time of their adoption. The mean length of time that the child had lived with his or her adoptive family was 4.5 years (SD = 2 years). Data revealed that 29 percent of the children were below grade level and 52 percent of the children had been diagnosed with language disorders or delays in such areas as expressive language, receptive language, abstract reasoning, and auditory processing. Consequently, 49 percent of the children had individualized education plans that included speech and language services. Of the sample, 36 percent of the children were diagnosed with learning disabilities, including delays in mathematics, reading, written language, and visual perception. Sensory integration dysfunction and fine motor delay services were provided to 32 percent of the children. ADHD was diagnosed for 38 percent of the sample, while other children had been diagnosed with anxiety (19 percent), depression (19 percent), reactive attachment disorder (16 percent), post-traumatic stress disorder (32 percent), motor coordination disorder (7 percent), and obsessive-compulsive disorder (5 percent). Children who were adopted at later ages were more likely to be diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder than those who were younger at the time of their adoption.

Parents of children in this sample reported that as their children aged, their children's language deficits, social skills deficits, and auditory processing difficulties became more prominent. With these increasing stressors, parents also reported that they perceived the need to advocate for their children in order to receive services from schools (85 percent). Over three-quarters of the parents indicated that they were satisfied with the school's service provision. Regarding social and emotional development, 37 percent of the parents reported that their child did not have a best friend. On family relations, 93 percent of parents responded that they had good relationships with their adoptive children.

The results of this descriptive study suggest important programmatic implications for early intervention programs and schools. The high proportion of children who required speech and language services, services for ADHD, and services for neuropsychiatric disorders may necessitate specialized training for general education classroom teachers. Research on lack of success or difficulty in learning has long been associated with such issues as school dropout and risky behaviors; therefore, addressing the needs of this group of children is necessary to minimize the potential long-term impact, for many of these children, on their learning and social relationships. Information on how resilient these children are is also needed. While this survey provided a glimpse into the developmental trajectories of children adopted from Eastern European countries, further research is also needed on the large number of children adopted from other international locations as well as how these children compare to children adopted from within the United States:

Parent Socialization, Family Economic Well-Being, and Toddlers" Cognitive Development in Rural Paraguay --Austin, Blevins-Knabe, Nielsen de Aquino, Urbieta de Burro, Park, Bayley, Christensen, Leavitt, Merrill, Taylor, & George

Research on the cognitive outcomes of infants and toddlers in developing countries is relatively scarce. The current study from rural Paraguay is an examination of the relationship among parent socialization, economic well-being, and mental development. The study is situated in barrios of a country where the literacy rate of adults is defined as completing the 2nd grade, 48 percent of families do not have running water and 71 percent of homes do not have adequate systems for the disposal of human waste, many children are exposed to parasites, there is lack of access to comprehensive health services, and many rural families live under the defined poverty level.

Data were collected from children and their families in five rural Paraguayan barrios on the Bayley Scales of Infant Development (2nd edition), the Home Observation for the Measurement of the Environment (HOME), and an author-developed measure of family resources, which included questions on breast-feeding practices, waste disposal, levels of parental education, parental occupation and presence in the home, language spoken, possession of farm animals, and number of family members living in the home. The authors piloted the Bayley measure in two similar barrios to ensure validity with Paraguayan children. Data were collected on 30 toddlers, of whom 11 were girls and 19 were boys, whose fathers, on average, had 4.6 years of schooling, and whose mothers had 3.7 years of schooling. The mean number of people living in the homes of the children was eight persons.

Children were administered the Bayley and the HOME inventories by two separate teams of data collectors and the measures were counterbalanced to eliminate order effects. The data were collected by trained child psychologists. Results indicated that mean score on the mental development index (MDI) of the Bayley was 62.4 for the entire sample and that higher MDI scores were associated with the mother not living in the home, while lower MDI scores were associated with the child's father being steadily employed. Test scores for the toddlers dropped as children aged. There were also significant negative correlations between variables associated with the mother and delay scores from the Bayley (e.g., mother's education level, mother's steady employment). Data from the HOME inventory indicated some differences emerged among the children who lived in different barrios. A significant correlation also was found between the MDI and the HOME organization scale. Access to health care was significantly associated with greater cognitive capabilities.

Like previous research that has focused on the decline of MDI scores for children in developing countries, the current study suggests that the decline may be associated with poor health and greater exposure to parasites as well as poor parent-child socialization. The authors of the study also note the cultural relevance of the measures with explanations of child outcomes. For example, one of the items on the HOME inventory, which deals with parents' interactions with visitors, may be culturally biased against Paraguayan women, who are more likely to take a less prominent role during such exchanges. This parent-child socialization issue also was advanced as a reason for the decline in MDI scores, in that parents' responsivity to their children was associated with economic and social capital resources.

The implications for this research are far-reaching. Although the study focused on a developing country, the implications for children and families living in poverty are not constrained only to developing countries. This research adds to the database of studies that the field has done on the contributions of early parent-child socialization as well as access to health care. Much research has been conducted on the role of limited economic and social capital, yet careful attention to the cultural contributions and differences in those constructs also should receive attention.

Effects of the Nurturing Curriculum on Social, Emotional, and Academic Behaviors in Kindergarten Classrooms --Vespo, Capece, & Behforooz

The importance of the quality of the first few years of life has been discussed by many national advocacy organizations, government panels, and early childhood researchers. While much other research has centered on academic readiness for schooling, research on interventions that target the social and emotional development of young children is not as extensive. The current study examines the Nurturing Curriculum teacher-implemented intervention in kindergarten classrooms, which is designed to enhance young children's self-concept, empathy for others, communication skills, problem-solving and negotiation skills, and abilities to appropriately express anger and frustration.

Children in eight ethnically diverse kindergarten classrooms and their teachers participated in the study, which was conducted in an inner-city setting in the northeastern United States. Teachers from two schools were trained in a workshop prior to the start of the school year on classroom lessons; each lesson was designed to be implemented in about 20 minutes. The lessons included information on a specific social skill with connections for continuity into the home. For the kindergarten intervention, 71 lessons were provided for teacher use. Lesson implementation was tracked by teachers in journals (on average, 35 percent of lessons were conducted) and through independent observation by a participant observer. Teachers could implement the lessons at the times and days of their choosing. The participant-observer rated each child on a modified version of the Teacher Checklist of Social Behavior. Assessments on children were collected in October, January, and June of the children's kindergarten year.

Ratings of children at each time period were averaged, providing one total score for each child. Analysis of variance tests was conducted to examine an increase in social and emotional skills across the school year. Results indicated that there were time effects across the school year, with decreases in negative behaviors (i.e., aggression, dominance, disruptive behaviors, social insecurity, and academic immaturity) and increases in prosocial behaviors. Effect sizes also were calculated and were all above .80. To assess whether these changes could be linked to the Nurturing Curriculum instead of just the maturation of kindergarten children, the authors compared the results of the intervention group to a pilot sample of children who had been rated with the assessment tool but had not received the Nurturing Curriculum. The results revealed that children in the pilot sample were rated as more aggressive than children in the intervention sample, yet there were no significant changes to the children in the pilot group over their kindergarten year. Based on an argument advanced by Harter (1990), the authors suggested that children whose scores increased or decreased by more than one standard error of measurement seemed as indicators that the intervention was effective in modifying children's social and emotional skills. The authors also performed a stepwise multiple regression to assess the relationship of social and emotional behaviors to academic behavior. That analysis indicated that prosocial behavior and disruptive behaviors accounted for 72 percent of the variance in academic immaturity scores.

The results of this study suggest that social and emotional intervention with young children may have a pronounced effect on children's behavior. If such intervention also can improve academic readiness and success for the primary grades, social and emotional interventions could provide the foundation for continued success in school. This research was conducted with children who were more likely to be at-risk for poor transitions to school. Longitudinal research on this particular social and emotional intervention with a variety of groups of children is needed. In addition, the contribution of the home environment to the behavioral change of children associated with this intervention will contribute to a more complete understanding of how exactly these efforts contribute to successful transition to school.

Superhero Toys and Boys' Physically Active and Imaginative Play--Parsons & Howe

With fewer and fewer opportunities for children to engage in dramatic or pretend play, the quality of play experiences becomes particularly important. The current study investigates superhero play, a type of play that is more likely to be exhibited by boys than by girls and has the three main presentations of capture and rescue, submit or vanquish, and attack and flee. Parents and early childhood educators often have concerns about aggression and violence associated with the viewing of television programs that feature superhero characters. However, the research literature presents mixed findings on whether or not superhero play is causally linked to violence and aggression.

The current study was conducted with 58 four-year-old boys and examined the influence of superhero and non-superhero toys. The authors collected information on the frequency of superhero play, the themes and roles enacted, the boys' level of physical activity, and the frequency of aggression. The children were paired and given two sets of materials in which to engage in 8-minute play sessions with both superhero and non-superhero figures. The boys were enrolled in full-time child care; their mean age was 54.95 months (SD = 5.28) Pairs of boys were created through a peer nomination technique to create preferred playmate dyads. After a 5-minute warm-up session, the boys participated in two counterbalanced play sessions. Each play condition included 1 female and 10 male figurines. Parents of the children completed a demographic questionnaire that included information on television viewing habits. Data on the play sessions were coded in 15-second intervals across the four areas of the study.

Results revealed that the boys engaged in a variety of roles and themes of play. There were no observed incidents of verbal or physical aggression in either play condition, but the researchers observed a low frequency of play with aggressive play objects. With regard to the roles that the boys assumed, there were more character roles associated with the use of the superhero toys and more familial, occupational, exploration/negotiation, and lack of roles with non-superhero toys. The themes associated with the two play conditions indicated that a nurturing/ caring theme and the domestic/housekeeping theme occurred more often in the nonsuperhero play. Greater physical activity also was found in the non-superhero play condition. Examination of correlates with television viewing indicated that boys who preferred superhero television programming were more likely in both play conditions to engage in attack/battling behaviors.

This study helps broaden the literature on the role of play with superheroes and non-superheroes. Research that focuses on exploration of play in natural settings with superheroes, as well as in home environments with and without exposure to television viewing, is also important to conduct.

Boy in the Bubble: Effects of Paraprofessional Proximity and Other Pedagogical Decisions on the Interactions of a Student With Behavioral Disorders--Malmgren & Causton-Theoharis

Current school reforms, including legislation such as the most recent reauthorization of the Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act, suggest the continued inclusion of children with special needs in general education settings. A vast amount of literature documents inclusion efforts by situating inclusion in theory based on the development of social interactions, peer relationships, and motivation, while other specific research has highlighted the benefits of instructional grouping arrangements, classroom climate, task structure, and the role of adults and other more capable peers working to assist children with disabilities. Examination of the use of paraprofessionals who assist children with disabilities has provided mixed results, including positive academic gains, but also inhibited peer interactions with peers who have disabilities as well as peers who are typically developing.

The current study was a qualitative case study situated in an elementary school classroom in the northwestern United States. In a classroom that had 59 students (51 students in a general education setting and 8 students who had identified disabilities) who were instructed by two general education teachers, one special education teacher, and a full-time paraprofessional, the study focused on the inclusion of a student, Gary, who was diagnosed with an emotional and behavioral disorder. Observational data were collected in the general education classroom setting and two non-school settings. Interview data were also collected from the general education teachers, the special education teacher, the paraprofessional, Gary, and Gary's mother. All teachers (including the paraprofessional) had a minimum of a bachelor's degree (the paraprofessional had a bachelor's degree in an area other than education and had been a paraprofessional for five years). Gary, a biracial 2nd-grader, had received special education services for two years prior to the current study. Gary's presentation of his disorder was mainly a set of internalizing behaviors with accompanying tantrums. Given this presentation, he was assigned his own full-time paraprofessional to help him meet his educational goals.

Classroom observational data indicated that over the course of 420 minutes of observation, Gary participated in 84 interactions. Of these 84, 52 were with adults, 16 were with peers with disabilities, and 16 were with peers without disabilities. Data indicated a discrepancy between what teachers perceived as benefits of grouping Gary with other children without disabilities and Gary's own perception of the grouping. Observational data indicated that the teachers overestimated the amount of interaction in which Gary was involved. Despite a group management system as well as a problem-solving strategy to promote a positive classroom environment, Gary did not appear to engage with peers or adults. Interview data suggested that Gary had difficulty with lack of structure in classroom- or school-related activities; however, in a non-academic setting, Gary interacted with peers. The last component of the observational study was an analysis of the proximity of adults to Gary, specifically the paraprofessional. Of the 270 minutes of classroom observation, only three interactions took place in the presence of the paraprofessional, while 90 percent of Gary's overall observed interactions took place without an adult near him.

The results of this study necessitate conversations about the role of adults in the peer or social exchanges of children with special needs in a general education setting. The authors of the study assert that the influence of the paraprofessional may have inhibited other structures or experiences (e.g., peer tutoring, guidance strategies) for Gary. Because it is a typical practice to assign a paraprofessional to a child with significant disabilities, careful examination of the role of that adult in that child's learning and social development context is needed. There are clear teacher education implications that can be gleaned from this study. While there is research in child care as well as other educational settings that suggests that more adults in a classroom provide for more opportunity for social exchange and learning experiences, perhaps the quality of those interactions and support needs further examination.

Voices From the Classroom: Literacy Beliefs and Practices of Two Novice Elementary Teachers--Deal & White

Both teacher preparation and early literacy skills of children have been focal points of recent federal legislation, with the goal of producing highly prepared teachers who can teach reading. While many teacher preparation programs have increased the number of reading theory and methodology courses, little research documents how that preparation is translated into the first few years of teaching.

The current study presents case reports of two preservice teachers as they complete their preparation program and move into the first teaching positions. The two teachers, Maggie and Natalie, enrolled in a typical teacher preparation program that offered coursework and experiences in the teaching of reading, including placements in a professional development school in which they were both eventually employed. Maggie was a 2nd-grade teacher and Natalie taught in a 3rd-grade classroom.

Data, from interviews, direct observation of the teachers' classrooms, reflections from the teachers, and artifact analysis, were collected during the end phase of the teacher preparation program and during Maggie's and Natalie's first year of teaching. Data were analyzed through a constant comparative method and centered on factors that influenced teacher beliefs in general, beliefs about literacy instruction, and how these beliefs changed over time. Coded data generally fell into three categories: school context, teacher preparation, and dispositions of the individual teachers. The types of supports in the school content changed from the student teaching experience to the first year of professional teaching. Maggie found her peers during the first year to be very helpful, while Natalie found her peers to be more competitive in nature. From student teaching to the first year, both candidates grew increasingly frustrated with time and paperwork constraints.

Regarding beliefs about literacy instruction, the two teachers promoted balanced literacy approaches, strategy instruction, differentiated instruction, and assessment strategies that highlighted the strengths of individual children. These beliefs about reading instruction expanded as the two began their teaching careers and included flexible grouping arrangements as well as a continued focus on instructional strategies. The strength of these beliefs evolved as the year progressed and the two teachers advocated an even stronger balanced approach to literacy. Maggie and Natalie also became more comfortable with the non-instructional components of literacy instruction (e.g., time, paperwork, political agendas).

The results of this study contribute to our understanding of teacher preparation and induction to teaching as teachers whose philosophical continuity was consistent between their teacher preparation program and their initial solo experiences in the classroom. The school context contributed greatly to the teachers' literacy instruction by valuing reflective practice and offering peer support in the school. The two teachers' dispositions also influenced their practice. These skills and dispositions suggest the need for future research on teacher preparation programs and, specifically, on early literacy instruction and the continued development of such skills.

Beginning Teacher Concerns in an Accountability-Based Testing Environment --Certo

Despite the steady preparation of teachers across the United States, retention of teachers in the field continues to be a constant issue for schools. Popular impressions of stressors that teachers face suggest that while classroom discipline, student motivation, and classroom organization continue to be factors, teachers also have growing concerns about accountability and assessment in classrooms.

The current study is an investigation of four pairs of teachers who were in their first year of teaching, and their school-assigned mentors. Interview data were collected in separate interviews of both the beginning teacher and mentor in September, December, and February. Five main questions served as the means for collecting information on the beginning teachers' concerns, the primary concern that the beginning teacher had, challenges in the classroom, struggles with that challenge, and the assistance provided by the mentor. Data from interviews and beginning teacher journals were coded through a micro-analysis strategy to develop initial codes (teacher journals were coded separately). Both sets of data codes were combined and reduced to a final set of 16 codes.

In September of the teachers' first year, concerns reported by the beginning teachers included assistance with school procedures, set-up of the classroom, obtaining resources and materials, and pacing of instruction. While many of the concerns were consistent with other research on beginning teacher concerns, pacing of instruction was not one that was present in previous literature. In December of the first year, the beginning teachers' focus shifted to the state standards and the district's pacing charts.

These concerns also were present in the data collected in February of the teachers' first year; however, the data suggested that the teachers were becoming more confident in their abilities to teach standards and assess those standards. The implications for teacher education suggest that teacher education programs might focus on assisting preservice teachers with pacing for instruction and strategies for soliciting assistance from more experienced teachers in the schools regarding such pacing.

Stacey Neuharth-Pritchett

The University of Georgia