Research into practice: at-risk learners, teacher education, and leadership.

Six studies are highlighted in this issue. The first three and the fifth study examine at-risk youth. The first study examines the role of academic data in elementary and middle school and its usefulness in predicting success in high school. The second provides an empirical look at the validity of one of the most popular early literacy measures. The third study documents the current state of technology in classrooms for African American youth. The fourth study describes pedagogical content knowledge in mathematics. The fifth study describes how the teaching of reading strategies can influence the interest and self-efficacy of at-risk readers. The sixth and final study provides a unique glimpse into the leadership of young children. This column briefly summarizes the content of the articles and suggests implications for the research as well as areas for future research studies.

Relating Academic Data From the Elementary Grades to State Test Results in High School: Implications for School Improvement Through Professional Development

--Griswold

Given the current trends in accountability in American schools, strategies for not only documenting student progress but also using that documentation to intervene with students who are considered low-performing in schools are necessary. American schools collect mountains of data on elementary and middle school students. Some of these data are used at specific points in a child's academic career to make high-stakes decisions about the child's progression from grade level to grade level; however, much of the data is not used to generate comprehensive profiles of children and young adolescents. Under the No Child Left Behind legislation, U.S. schools are expected to routinely collect data, make decisions based on those data, and ensure accountability for all groups of students in schools. The author of the current study notes that curricula are often not aligned with the current testing measures used to document student progress in schools, and as such may contribute to students' poor performance. As school districts across the United States search for meaningful ways to use data from performance measures to meet the individual needs of students, they need compelling examples that demonstrate the predictability of student success, and from which interpretations may be drawn.

To examine the usefulness of data from elementary and intermediate students in the prediction of their success in high school, two groups of participants were selected from a city in the midwestern United States. The two groups of students were labeled low test-success (N=48) and high test-success (N=48) test takers. The low test-success students were students who repeatedly struggled with their 9th-grade state test. Using a predominantly white sample with a relatively small number of students with disabilities, data were collected from the cumulative folders of the students once they had been assigned to a group (low- vs high-test success); this included students' previous participation in Title I programs, mathematics achievement standardized test scores (ITBS) at grades 4 and 6, end of the year marks from teachers in grades 3-6 on mathematics, reading achievement standardized test scores (ITBS) at grades 4 and 6, and end of the year marks from teachers in grades 3-6 on reading. Comparisons on each of the variables were between the low- and high-success test takers.

Differences between the two groups favored the high-success test takers on all variables. Specifically, more students who struggled in 9th grade were enrolled in Title I programs in elementary school, were more likely to receive poorer grades in mathematics and reading from their elementary and intermediate teachers, and were more likely to have lower standardized achievement scores in 4th and 6th grade in both reading and mathematics. Although the analyses were performed on the students' percentile scores from the ITBS in 4th and 6th grade, and not the students' normal curve equivalent scores, the differences between the two groups was highly significant, with effect sizes ranging from 2.4 to 3.2.

The author did raise some concerns regarding the generalizability of results to all school districts, noting the lack of including students whose performance was between those categorized as low test-success and high test-success test takers. In addition, data from students of differing socioeconomic groups also would be important to examine. The author provided practical suggestions for teachers, school administrative personnel, and school psychologists regarding curriculum alignment issues, the use of data to serve in a preventive manner rather than reactive manner for intervention, and the applicability of such approaches to data analysis for accountability purposes. Future research that utilizes a similar approach with archival data to predict student success in high school, with students from more diverse racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups, is needed.

Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS): A Tool for Evaluating Student Learning?

--Kamii & Manning

There is an increasing focus on the development of early literacy and reading interventions in the United States. Debate about practices that are based on scientifically based reading research abounds and indeed has had a marked influence on the funding of specific initiatives. While there are concerns about the relative usefulness of measures for assessing the literacy development of very young children, one measure that has gained popularity is the DIBELS (Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills). In the current study, the authors base their assessment approach on the work of an Argentinean researcher named Ferreiro. Her work focused on the development of children's skills of theory construction of written symbols. While Ferreiro's work has focused on children who are Spanish-speaking, similar findings have been found for American children.

In the current study, the authors assessed 107 kindergartners and 101 first-graders in a suburban environment in the American south. Kindergarten children participated in holistic reading and writing instruction with daily journal writing, demonstration writing, and shared reading where phonemic awareness and phonics were integrated into the instruction. The 1st-graders' instruction varied from teacher to teacher. Children were assessed with a writing task developed by the researchers and the results were categorized into one of 14 levels. Children were administered the DIBELS in January of the respective kindergarten and 1st-grade years. Finally, children also took the Slosson Oral Reading Test.

Results indicated that the DIBELS Phonemic Segmentation Fluency (PSF) was somewhat associated with the writing task, nonsense word fluency, and ability to read sight words in kindergarten. This finding did not hold for 1st-graders, for whom PSF was only minimally related to nonsense words. The DIBELS Nonsense Word Fluency (NWF) subtest was also related to the writing task and reading task in kindergarten; however NWF was only minimally found to be related to ability to write words and read sight words and paragraphs.

The authors note the usefulness of the author-developed writing task and argue that the theoretical base of the task is more consistent with the development of young children than the more behavioral framework of the DIBELS assessment. The authors of the study raise questions as to the alignment of the theoretical base of the DIBELS and the development of children's early literacy skills. As programs search for appropriate measures to evaluate programs, it is important to consider the theoretical basis of assessment tools that, while popular, may not be entirely consistent with the latest knowledge on children's development.

The Impact of Computer Technology on Academic Achievement of Young African American Children

--Judge

Access to technology, and the types of technology available, for children and adolescents in schools today is unprecedented. However, that access and technology is not equally available to all children in the United States. This technological divide exists not only in schools but also in the children's homes. Current legislation requires that students in American schools be technologically literate by the 8th grade, yet teachers in American schools are not necessarily comfortable with either the technology itself or the integration of technology into instruction for young children. Recent research suggests that the use of technology can have a powerful influence on the achievement of African American children who are placed at risk.

The current study examined data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998-1999, in which 1,601 African American children, who represented 274 school districts, in kindergarten and 1st grade were selected as participants. The sample was diverse, with representation of children from different socioeconomic groups as well as diverse families. Data were collected on the types and availability of technology in the children's schools as well as on mathematics and reading skills.

Data analyses suggested that almost all children had access to computers in their school classrooms, yet only 29 percent had access to computers in their homes. Access to computers in schools increased as children move from kindergarten to 1st grade. Reading, writing, and spelling software programs were more in use in kindergarten than in 1st grade, where mathematics and other content area software was more prevalent. The data indicated that computer access was correlated with academic achievement in kindergarten and 1st grade. Children who are high achieving in low-poverty schools used computers more than their peers who were low achieving. These effects were mainly found during kindergarten and disappeared in 1st grade.

The outcome data from this study suggest that schools have some room for improvement with regard to access to computers in the classroom for young African American children. While the data in this study focused on variables that dealt with the number of computers in classrooms, future research that illustrates how computers are integrated into classroom instruction and how that integration specifically influences achievement is needed.

The Mathematics Content Knowledge Role in Developing Preservice Teachers' Pedagogical Content Knowledge

--Capraro, Capraro, Parker, Kulm, & Raulerson

The popular press, as well as the empirical education literature, routinely highlights the mathematical abilities of American students. Arguments about teacher preparation and teachers' ability to effectively teach mathematics in schools and associations with particular groups of students and particular curricular approaches also can be found in the literature. Effective teacher education programs continuously struggle with the best method to prepare preservice teachers in mathematical pedagogical content knowledge. The field debates whether performance on teacher mathematical knowledge assessment measures can predict one's ability to effectively teach mathematics.

The current study examined preservice teachers' previous mathematics ability and posttest performance as predictors to student success on a state-mandated teacher certification exam. From these results, three preservice teachers were selected to represent one high, one medium, and one low mathematics achieving undergraduate education majors. The three students were studied for insights into the understanding of how preservice teachers with mixed mathematics backgrounds 1) develop pedagogical skills, 2) plan for conceptual development, 3) promote student thinking and reflection, and 4) build on student ideas in the development of mathematics conceptualization.

The results of the study indicated that a lack of mathematical content knowledge led to ineffective mathematics instruction. In addition, beneficial outcomes of field experiences depend on several factors, including the quality of the mentor, the rigor of the pedagogical expectations, and the willingness of the preservice teacher to fully engage the content and pedagogy. The authors noted that more time in the classroom alone is not sufficient enough to produce a high-quality teacher, but rather preservice teachers need to see best practices and have meaningful experiences in those classrooms. While there is no one right way to educate preservice teachers in mathematical pedagogical content knowledge, the authors of this study have advanced our knowledge of meaningful experiences that are based on strong preparation in content. Given the needs of our students and the accountability that now surrounds the education process, highly prepared teachers who can meet the needs of all students should be of central concern to teacher educators.

Self-Efficacy and Interest in the Use of Reading Strategies

--McCrudden, Perkins, & Putney

Research on strategy instruction suggests that students' self-efficacy and interest may increase when they are taught specific strategies; however, the research on reading strategy instruction and interest in the use of reading strategies by at-risk readers is limited. The present study examines whether explicit strategy instruction in reading strategies and modeling of reading strategies would affect student self-efficacy and interest. The participants in the study were African American 4th-graders from families with limited socioeconomic means. In addition, the majority of children were reading below grade level.

Students were instructed in reading strategies and four reading comprehension strategies (e.g., question, predict, imagine, and summarize) over a two-week period of time. The procedures included a pre-instruction phase, in which self-efficacy and the interest item were assessed; an instruction and practice phase, in which explicit reading strategies were taught; and a post-instruction phase, in which the self-efficacy and interest item along with reading was assessed. From pretest to posttest, both self-efficacy and interest significantly increased; however, there was no increase in reading comprehension, likely due to the short time period of the intervention.

While the current study was exploratory in nature, it did suggest that engaging at-risk youth in strategy instruction may serve as a motivating force to keep at-risk learners on task and reading. Such studies that employ techniques to elicit feedback from elementary learners themselves may extend our knowledge of effective reading instruction with youth who are considered to be at risk for school failure.

"Not the Same Kind of Leaders": Four Young Children's Unique Ways of Influencing Others

--Lee, Recchia, & Shin 

Little research has focused on the development of leadership and the leadership styles of very young children. Some aspects of leadership characteristics have been examined in research on children's social competence and peer relationships. This study provides a unique glimpse into the leadership construct in young children.

The authors of the current study employed a case study methodology to examine the leadership characteristics and behaviors of four young children enrolled in a university-based child care center. Three girls, two toddlers and a preschooler, and one preschooler boy were participants in the study and nominated by their teachers for the study. Data was collected through interviews and observations. Children were observed for 30 minutes per week for six weeks in a naturalistic manner and also videotaped twice a week for 15 minutes. Single case analyses were performed and then cross-case analyses were conducted. Each child was profiled and his or her characteristics of leadership were described.

The four children were uniquely profiled as a "director," a "free spirit," a "manager," and "powerful." What is clear from all four cases was the adeptness of each child in reading the social environment and adjust his or her play and engagement accordingly. The authors noted that the children had advanced social and cognitive capabilities, verbal language proficiency, dramatic skills, creativity, imagination, independence, and the position of being the oldest in the group. While each child demonstrated his or her unique leadership characteristics, each child also could facilitate relationships with other children.

The authors end the piece with implications for teachers and suggestions for the construction of environments that would facilitate children's leadership. Future research that examines not only the unique contributions that each child brings to his or her play, but also the unique gender and cultural influences on children's leadership, will be a welcome addition to the literature.

Stacey Neuharth-Pritchett

The University of Georgia