Religion, spirituality, and career development in African American college students: a qualitative inquiry.The authors explored through semistructured interviews the interrelationships of religion, spirituality, and career development in a sample of 12 African American African American Multiculture A person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. See Race. undergraduate students. Using consensual CONSENSUAL, civil law. This word is applied to designate one species of contract known in the civil laws; these contracts derive their name from the consent of the parties which is required in their formation, as they cannot exist without such consent. 2. qualitative research Qualitative research Traditional analysis of firm-specific prospects for future earnings. It may be based on data collected by the analysts, there is no formal quantitative framework used to generate projections. methodology (C. E. Hill, B. J. Thompson, & E. N. Williams, 1997), they identified 6 primary domains or themes related to these students' experiences in this regard, including (a) degree of identification as religious and/or spiritual, (b) parents' influence on religious and spiritual beliefs, (c) roles of religion and spirituality in participants' career development, (d) challenges in dealing with academic and career-related issues, (e) religious and spiritual strategies to deal with academic and career-related challenges, and (f) indicators of success in future career or occupation. ********** Research regarding the influence of cultural issues on the career development of college students has primarily emphasized the importance of racial, ethnic, and gender issues and has given little attention to other multicultural mul·ti·cul·tur·al adj. 1. Of, relating to, or including several cultures. 2. Of or relating to a social or educational theory that encourages interest in many cultures within a society rather than in only a mainstream culture. variables. There is some evidence suggesting that the cultural variables of religion and spirituality play vital roles in many individuals' career decision-making processes Presented below is a list of topics on decision-making and decision-making processes: | width="" align="left" valign="top" |
| width="" align="left" valign="top" | Many researchers (Christian & Barbarin, 2001; Constantine, Lewis, Conner, & Sanchez, 2000) have reported that African Americans tend to have higher baseline rates of religious participation in comparison with the broader U.S. population. Some religious and spiritual beliefs and practices of African Americans derive from African worldviews, such as communalism com·mu·nal·ism n. 1. Belief in or practice of communal ownership, as of goods and property. 2. Strong devotion to the interests of one's own minority or ethnic group rather than those of society as a whole. (i.e., emphasizing the importance of human relationships and the interrelatedness in·ter·re·late tr. & intr.v. in·ter·re·lat·ed, in·ter·re·lat·ing, in·ter·re·lates To place in or come into mutual relationship. in of people), unity, cooperation, harmony, balance, creativity, and authenticity The correct attribution of origin such as the authorship of an e-mail message or the correct description of information such as a data field that is properly named. Authenticity is one of the six fundamental components of information security (see Parkerian Hexad). (Constantine, Gainor, Ahluwalia, & Berkel, 2003; Jackson & Sears, 1992; Myers, 1993; Utsey, Adams, & Bolden, 2000). In particular, religious, spiritual, and communal values are reflected in the context of many African Americans' daily activities and lives. For example, aspects of communalism and collectivism collectivism Any of several types of social organization that ascribe central importance to the groups to which individuals belong (e.g., state, nation, ethnic group, or social class). It may be contrasted with individualism. can be noted in the fact that religious participation has been linked to civic participation, volunteerism vol·un·teer·ism n. Use of or reliance on volunteers, especially to perform social or educational work in communities. volunteerism , philanthropic phil·an·throp·ic also phil·an·throp·i·cal adj. 1. Of, relating to, or marked by philanthropy; humanitarian. 2. Organized to provide humanitarian or charitable assistance: giving, and other forms of altruistic al·tru·ism n. 1. Unselfish concern for the welfare of others; selflessness. 2. Zoology Instinctive cooperative behavior that is detrimental to the individual but contributes to the survival of the species. behavior among African Americans (Billingsley & Caldwell, 1991; Mattis, Fontenot, Hatcher-Kay, Grayman, & Beale, 2004; Mattis et al., 2000). In addition, religion has been documented to play a role in shaping African Americans' cognitive outcomes (i.e., interpretations and appraisals of events), including a role in framing such events in times of adversity ad·ver·si·ty n. pl. ad·ver·si·ties 1. A state of hardship or affliction; misfortune. 2. A calamitous event. (Brodsky, 2000; McAdoo, 1995). Prior literature concerning religious and spiritual issues among African Americans has focused primarily on religious participation via religious institutions and African Americans' private beliefs and behaviors in connection to such institutions (Neighbors & Jackson, 1996). Despite the ever-growing number of studies focusing on religious and spiritual issues in the lives of African Americans, little information is known about how such issues relate to academic and vocational domains of African American college students. Thus, the purpose of this investigation was to explore the roles of religion and spirituality in regard to the career development process of African American college students. For the purposes of this study, we examined both religious and spiritual issues (and their possible interplay in·ter·play n. Reciprocal action and reaction; interaction. intr.v. in·ter·played, in·ter·play·ing, in·ter·plays To act or react on each other; interact. and intersections) because religion is often viewed as subsuming spirituality for many African American college students (Constantine, Wilton, Gainor, & Lewis, 2002). Nonetheless, in the context of our investigation, it is important to distinguish between religion and spirituality because they each may represent an important dimension in these students' lives. Religion refers to the degree to which individuals adhere to adhere to verb 1. follow, keep, maintain, respect, observe, be true, fulfil, obey, heed, keep to, abide by, be loyal, mind, be constant, be faithful 2. the prescribed pre·scribe v. pre·scribed, pre·scrib·ing, pre·scribes v.tr. 1. To set down as a rule or guide; enjoin. See Synonyms at dictate. 2. To order the use of (a medicine or other treatment). beliefs and practices of an organized religion or a Higher Power Higher power is a term used in a 12-step program, such as Alcoholics Anonymous, to describe "a power greater than yourself." Although many participants equate their higher power with God, a belief in God or in formal religion is not mandatory; the higher power is intended as a . Spirituality refers to individuals' belief in the sacred nature of life in all of its forms and the manifestation man·i·fes·ta·tion n. An indication of the existence, reality, or presence of something, especially an illness. manifestation (man´ifestā´sh of this belief in a quest for Verb 1. quest for - go in search of or hunt for; "pursue a hobby" quest after, go after, pursue look for, search, seek - try to locate or discover, or try to establish the existence of; "The police are searching for clues"; "They are searching for the goodness and interconnectedness interconnectedness (inˈ·ter·k with other persons and things (Howard & Howard, 1997; Mattis et al., 2004; Walker & Dixon, 2002). Religion, Spirituality, and Career Issues It has been argued that religion and spirituality are inextricably in·ex·tri·ca·ble adj. 1. a. So intricate or entangled as to make escape impossible: an inextricable maze; an inextricable web of deceit. b. intertwined with human activities and that they have the potential to influence future work-related events and life outcomes (Fox, 2003; Ondeck, 2002). For instance, Phillips (2000) reported that religious affiliation and frequency of spiritual practice were positively related to African American students' adjustment to college and that greater levels of adjustment then contributed to greater academic success. In a study on the roles of religion and spirituality in relation to the academic performance of college students, Walker and Dixon (2002) found that African Americans who indicated higher levels of spiritual beliefs and behaviors had higher grade point averages, more academic honors, and fewer academic suspensions and probations. Because of their significance within the broader African American culture African American culture or Black culture, in the United States, includes the various cultural traditions of African American communities. It is both part of, and distinct from American culture. The U.S. , religious and spiritual elements are likely to be used by African American students in the context of dealing with various life stressors and adversities (Constantine et al., 2002; Ellison, 1993). In support of the aforementioned a·fore·men·tioned adj. Mentioned previously. n. The one or ones mentioned previously. aforementioned Adjective mentioned before Adj. 1. point, Blaine and Crocker (1995) noted that African American college students reported higher levels of religious participation than their White counterparts and tended to focus more on religion to explain life events. Furthermore, in a qualitative study examining relationships among religion and spirituality and coping and meaning making in a sample of African American women, Mattis (2002) reported that religion and/or spirituality enabled participants to recognize their life purpose or destiny. Similarly, other researchers (Mattis et al., 2000) have reported that religion and spirituality highlight the essence and purpose of life for some African Americans, which, subsequently, can influence their work participation and behaviors. Such findings highlight the premise that some African Americans' religious or spiritual beliefs, values, and practices may serve as a vital basis for understanding thoughts, feelings, experiences, and behaviors related to their career development. Howard and Howard (1997) suggested that religion is a filter through which religious or spiritual people assign meaning to their lives. These researchers also noted that occupations are spiritual activities that serve as a basis for life's meaning. For example, in Lips-Wiersma's (2002) exploratory qualitative study on the influence of spirituality on career behavior, participants reported that spirituality influenced their beliefs about meaningful work experiences. Furthermore, in an examination of the link between spirituality and success, Ashar and Lane-Maher (2004) indicated that their respondents' perceptions of success were related to their work experiences, sense of accomplishment, and ability to have "meaning" and "purpose" in life. Similarly, Milliman, Czaplewski, and Ferguson (2003), in their examination of workplace spirituality Introduction Workplace Spirituality or Spirituality in the Workplace is movement that began in the early 1990s. It emerged as a grassroots movement with individuals seeking to live their faith and/or spiritual values in the workplace. and organizational behaviors and attitudes, found that greater experiences of meaningful work were related to higher levels of (a) organizational commitment In the study of organizational behavior and Industrial/Organizational Psychology, organizational commitment is, in a general sense, the employee's psychological attachment to the organization. , (b) intrinsic work satisfaction, (c) job involvement, and (d) organization-based self-esteem. Although the studies mentioned above indicate that religion and spirituality are related to the career behaviors, values, and/or development of some people, the specific mechanisms by which religion and spirituality may influence or determine the career development processes of African Americans are unclear. Much of the research in this vein is largely correlational and does not identify the interplay and influences of these variables uniquely in the lives of African American college students. It is crucial that counseling professionals expand their knowledge about African American college students' experiences on college campuses, particularly as they relate to these individuals' career development processes. Hence, the purpose of this study was to explore the associations among religion, spirituality, and career development in a sample of 12 African American undergraduate students using Hill, Thompson, and Williams's (1997) consensual qualitative research (CQR CQR Secure CQR Count Question Resolution (census) CQR Coastal Quick Release (anchor) CQR Congressional Quarterly Researcher CQR Charge of Quarters Runner CQR Client Qualification Register ) methodology. Qualitative research methodologies such as CQR have been noted to be useful in providing in-depth and highly descriptive data that are needed to advance culturally based research, training, and practice (Ponterotto, 1998). We hoped the findings of our inquiry would shed light on various religious and spiritual factors that might affect the career development and academic experiences of African American college students in order to inform career counseling Noun 1. career counseling - counseling on career opportunities counseling, counselling, guidance, counsel, direction - something that provides direction or advice as to a decision or course of action practice with this population. Method Twelve self-identified African American undergraduate students from a large, predominantly pre·dom·i·nant adj. 1. Having greatest ascendancy, importance, influence, authority, or force. See Synonyms at dominant. 2. White, private university in the northeastern United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. participated in the study. These students were members of a Black student organization on the campus and responded to an invitation, which was posted on the organization's Web site, to participate in the study. We selected the first 12 students who responded to the posting for the study by e-mail and invited them to contact the interviewer (the first author) to set up a date and time to be interviewed. The students were informed that they would not receive compensation for participating in the study. The respondents In the context of marketing research, a representative sample drawn from a larger population of people from whom information is collected and used to develop or confirm marketing strategy. ranged in age from 18 to 22 years (M = 19.58, SD = 1.31) and reported matriculating in academic majors that included sociology, psychology, engineering, economics, criminal justice, education, and political science. Eight of the participants were women and 4 were men. By educational level, 3 of the participants were 1st-year students, 4 were sophomores, 2 were juniors, and 3 were seniors. By socioeconomic so·ci·o·ec·o·nom·ic adj. Of or involving both social and economic factors. socioeconomic Adjective of or involving economic and social factors Adj. 1. background, 6 of these individuals indicated that they came from middle-class backgrounds, and the remaining 6 were from working-class backgrounds. Four of the participants reported that they identified as Catholic, 3 as nondenominational non·de·nom·i·na·tion·al adj. Not restricted to or associated with a religious denomination. Adj. 1. nondenominational - not restricted to a particular religious denomination; "a nondenominational church" Christian, 3 as Baptist, 1 as Methodist, and 1 as Seventh-Day Adventist Sev·enth-day Adventist n. A member of a sect of Adventism distinguished chiefly for its observance of the Sabbath on Saturday. . Researchers The primary researchers for this study were the first and third authors. These researchers served as judges for the coding tasks, and they both had previous experience with CQR methodology. Both of them also reported having extensive experience working with African American college students in both personal and career counseling. Prior to collecting data, the two researchers discussed any biases they might have had related to the investigation by noting their expectations regarding the potential findings of the study. According to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. the CQR method, documenting and discussing these biases are essential to minimize their impact on the data-coding process (Hill et al., 1997). With regard to our biases, we believed that all of the participants would report having a strong religious orientation Noun 1. religious orientation - an attitude toward religion or religious practices orientation - an integrated set of attitudes and beliefs agnosticism - a religious orientation of doubt; a denial of ultimate knowledge of the existence of God; "agnosticism that was based primarily on the practices and beliefs reflected in their family of origin. We also believed most of the participants would make a distinction between religion and spirituality in terms of how they viewed these constructs in the context of their lives. In addition, we thought many participants would indicate that their religious and spiritual backgrounds played a strong role in the identification of their academic major and future career choice. Finally, we expected that many participants would report that their religious or spiritual beliefs played an important role in how they coped with difficulties and challenges associated with their academic major or career choice. Measure and Procedure Demographic questionnaire. The interviewees completed a demographic form that included questions about their age, sex, race and ethnicity ethnicity Vox populi Racial status–ie, African American, Asian, Caucasian, Hispanic , socioeconomic status socioeconomic status, n the position of an individual on a socio-economic scale that measures such factors as education, income, type of occupation, place of residence, and in some populations, ethnicity and religion. , academic major, and religious affiliation. Interview protocol. After conducting a thorough review of the literature related to religion, spirituality, and career development issues in African Americans, we developed a semistructured interview protocol. The review of the literature covered numerous sources, including journal articles, books, Web sites, and doctoral dissertations in the areas pertaining per·tain intr.v. per·tained, per·tain·ing, per·tains 1. To have reference; relate: evidence that pertains to the accident. 2. to this study. Prior to the actual interviews, pilot interviews were conducted with three African American undergraduate students. The primary researchers used the feedback gleaned from the pilot interviews to modify the interview protocol (see Appendix). The first author served as the interviewer, and she scheduled all the face-to-face interviews. Participants were asked to sign a consent form prior to the interview. All of the interviews were audiotaped and lasted between 55 and 80 minutes. The interviewer used probes throughout the interviews to elicit e·lic·it tr.v. e·lic·it·ed, e·lic·it·ing, e·lic·its 1. a. To bring or draw out (something latent); educe. b. To arrive at (a truth, for example) by logic. 2. additional information as needed as needed prn. See prn order. . After the interviews, participants' names were deleted Deleted A security that is no longer included on a specified market. Sometimes referred to as "delisted". Notes: Reasons for delisting include violating regulations, failing to meet financial specifications set out by the stock exchange and going bankrupt. from the data, each participant was assigned a code number, and the tapes were transcribed. The interviewer reviewed the transcriptions for accuracy, and minimal expressions such as "ahh" and "um" were deleted (Hill et al., 1997). Qualitative analyses were then conducted by the primary researchers using the CQR method outlined in Hill et al. Development of domains and coding into domains. To begin the coding process, each judge developed a "start list" of domains (i.e., topic areas) based on the content of the interview. Next, each judge independently reviewed each of the interviews in order to categorize cat·e·go·rize tr.v. cat·e·go·rized, cat·e·go·riz·ing, cat·e·go·riz·es To put into a category or categories; classify. cat the material. Later, the judges (the first and third authors) argued to consensus regarding the final list of domains. Modifications of the domains based on themes found in participants' responses occurred during the coding process. The final six domains were (a) degree of identification as religious and/or spiritual, (b) parents' influence on religious and spiritual beliefs, (c) roles of religion and spirituality in participants' career development, (d) challenges in dealing with academic and career-related issues, (e) religious and spiritual strategies to deal with academic and career-related challenges, and (f) indicators of success in future career or occupation. The judges then independently read through the transcripts and assigned blocks of sentences to a domain. At times, double coding the data was necessary if the data fit under more than one domain, but this procedure was used infrequently in·fre·quent adj. 1. Not occurring regularly; occasional or rare: an infrequent guest. 2. throughout the process. After this process was completed, the judges convened to discuss the coding for each specific transcript A generic term for any kind of copy, particularly an official or certified representation of the record of what took place in a court during a trial or other legal proceeding. A transcript of record . Differences in coding were discussed until consensus was reached regarding the most suitable domain for each block of data. Abstracting core ideas within domains. The two judges read the raw data within each domain and formulated for·mu·late tr.v. for·mu·lat·ed, for·mu·lat·ing, for·mu·lates 1. a. To state as or reduce to a formula. b. To express in systematic terms or concepts. c. core ideas (i.e., summary statements). The general purpose of this procedure is to capture the essence of what each participant said in a clear and concise fashion (Hill et al., 1997). After the two judges abstracted the core ideas independently, they discussed these ideas until consensus was reached on the wording of each core idea. Audit. The auditor for this study was the fifth author of this article. The audit process entailed checking to ensure that raw data were appropriately sorted into domains and abstracted into accurate and complete core summaries. The auditor made several written suggestions for changes, and the judges evaluated the auditor's comments and made changes by consensus. Cross-analyses. The purpose of cross-analysis is to identify similarities across cases. To achieve this goal, the judges created categories within each domain that reflected the essence of the core ideas. Next, the judges examined the core ideas under each domain and placed respective core ideas under each category. Auditing of the cross-analyses. The person who audited the domains and core ideas also audited the cross-analyses. The judges discussed the changes suggested by the auditor, and these changes were incorporated when warranted. All 12 cases were included in the final reported analyses. Results The next sections offer descriptions and examples of the domains, categories, and subcategories identified via data analysis (see Table 1). As per the CQR method (Hill et al., 1997), a category that included all cases was called general (n = 12), a category that applied to 7 to 11 cases was called typical, and a category that applied to 3 to 6 of the cases was called variant variant /var·i·ant/ (var´e-ant) 1. something that differs in some characteristic from the class to which it belongs. 2. exhibiting such variation. var·i·ant adj. (occasionally). Categories that included only 1 or 2 cases were not included in the final results. Degree of Identification as Religious and/or Spiritual Participants typically noted that they identified as spiritual but not religious. For instance, one participant indicated,</p> <pre> I'm not really a religious type of person, but I can say that I identify as a spiritual person in terms of my belief in God ... I don't tie my beliefs to a particular [religious] denomination Denomination The stated value found on financial instruments. Notes: This term applies to most financial instruments with monetary values. The denomination for bonds and securities would be face value or par value. , so I'm more comfortable embracing the term "spiritual" in terms of [characterizing] my beliefs. </pre> <p>Two variant categories emerged in the context of participants' degree of identification as religious and/or spiritual. For example, some participants noted that they identified primarily as religious and others reported as identifying as both religious and spiritual. Parents' Influence on Religious and Spiritual Beliefs Participants typically reported that they felt forced by their parents to attend church weekly while they were growing up. In the words of one interviewee,</p> <pre> We were in church every Sunday, like clockwork clock·work n. A mechanism of geared wheels driven by a wound spring, as in a mechanical clock. Idiom: like clockwork With machinelike regularity and precision; perfectly: . It didn't matter if I was sick or didn't feel like going. My parents made sure we went to Sunday school Sunday school, institution for instruction in religion and morals, usually conducted in churches as part of the church organization but sometimes maintained by other religious or philanthropic bodies. In England during the 18th cent. and church service because they told me it was setting the foundation for my whole life. </pre> <p>A variant subcategory sub·cat·e·go·ry n. pl. sub·cat·e·go·ries A subdivision that has common differentiating characteristics within a larger category. emerged from this category and pertained to interviewees' initial rebellion against attending church after leaving for college because they were no longer forced to do so by their parents. For example, a participant reported,</p> <pre> I didn't go to church for a few years after I got here. I mean, I was so sick of being made to go to church, even when I didn't want to [go]. But after a while, I missed it and went back. Now I go to church because I want to go [and] not because somebody's making me. </pre> <p>Interviewees also occasionally reported that their parents encouraged them to live by "the Golden Rule" in dealing with other people.</p> <pre> My folks said to treat other people like you want to be treated, and that's the basis for a lot of my thoughts about [religious and spiritual issues]. They said that as long as you don't step on people or trample on them and you treat them respectfully re·spect·ful adj. Showing or marked by proper respect. re·spect  ful·ly adv. , then everything will fall into place. You'll have
good karma if you live by these principles. </pre>
<p>Participants also occasionally reported that their parents did
not have strong religious beliefs that influenced their own beliefs.Roles of Religion and Spirituality in Participants' Career Development Interviewees typically noted that they believed God had a unique plan for their life through their career choice, and one variant subcategory emerged from this category. For instance, one participant stated,</p> <pre> Part of God's plan is being fulfilled ful·fill also ful·fil tr.v. ful·filled, ful·fill·ing, ful·fills also ful·fils 1. To bring into actuality; effect: fulfilled their promises. 2. right now by my being in college and preparing to embark on Verb 1. embark on - get off the ground; "Who started this company?"; "We embarked on an exciting enterprise"; "I start my day with a good breakfast"; "We began the new semester"; "The afternoon session begins at 4 PM"; "The blood shed started when the partisans my future career.... I knew early on [in life] that I was supposed to do something special in my work because an inner voice told me I had to make a difference and that I needed to follow God's plan for me. I obeyed God and here I am--almost finished with school and getting ready to fulfill ful·fill also ful·fil tr.v. ful·filled, ful·fill·ing, ful·fills also ful·fils 1. To bring into actuality; effect: fulfilled their promises. 2. my life's purpose through my job. </pre> <p>Participants also typically indicated they believed it was important to help or serve others through their work or vocation:</p> <pre> God doesn't just want us to think about what we can do just to further ourselves. He wants us to be of service to others, to help them when they struggle, and that's why I want to be a [special education] teacher. I think I can help people who are the neediest and also feel like I'm personally fulfilled. </pre> <p>Interviewees occasionally stated they did not think religion and spirituality had much influence on their academic or career choice. Challenges in Dealing With Academic and Career-Related Issues Participants typically indicated that the racial discrimination they faced in college made their life difficult. This category was divided into two subcategories. First, participants typically indicated that they experienced racial discrimination by their peers.</p> <pre> Some White students don't want to see Black students here. They think we were admitted because of Affirmative Action affirmative action, in the United States, programs to overcome the effects of past societal discrimination by allocating jobs and resources to members of specific groups, such as minorities and women. , but little do they know that I was valedictorian of my [high school] class and earned a full scholarship to come here.... It's pretty hostile to go into a situation where people think you don't belong here when you know you do. </pre> <p>The other subcategory, which was variant, pertained to interviewees perceiving discrimination by faculty members or university support staff on campus. For example, one participant stated,</p> <pre> In my first semester se·mes·ter n. One of two divisions of 15 to 18 weeks each of an academic year. [German, from Latin (cursus) s here, my [academic] adviser questioned whether I should even be in engineering. He said this was a difficult major and he didn't want to see me flunk out flunk Informal v. flunked, flunk·ing, flunks v.intr. To fail, especially in a course or an examination. v.tr. 1. To fail (an examination or course). 2. by taking on something that was over my head. The guy didn't have any idea about whether I could do the work or not. All he saw was a young Black man and [he] assumed I wouldn't be successful because of all the math courses [in my major]. After all, [according to the professor], Black people are not supposed to do well in math.... He ended up eating his own words when I [earned] A's or B's in all of my courses that semester, including calculus calculus, branch of mathematics that studies continuously changing quantities. The calculus is characterized by the use of infinite processes, involving passage to a limit—the notion of tending toward, or approaching, an ultimate value. . </pre> <p>Participants also occasionally noted that they felt discouraged dis·cour·age tr.v. dis·cour·aged, dis·cour·ag·ing, dis·cour·ag·es 1. To deprive of confidence, hope, or spirit. 2. To hamper by discouraging; deter. 3. because of a perceived lack of support for their academic endeavors or future career choice. Two variant subcategories stemmed stemmed adj. 1. Having the stems removed. 2. Provided with a stem or a specific type of stem. Often used in combination: stemmed goblets; long-stemmed roses. from this category, the first of which pertained to participants' feeling discouraged by their parents. In the words of one interviewee,</p> <pre> My folks want me to major in something that's "useful" according to them, but I want to follow my heart. Sociology is useful and interesting to me, but my parents keep asking me what I'm gonna gon·na Informal Contraction of going to: We're gonna win today. do with a degree [in that field]. Things are hard enough here in the first place, but their [lack of support] often discourages me from trying to do well. </pre> <p>The other variant subcategory related to feeling discouraged by faculty members or university support staff for participants' academic or future career choice.</p> <pre> This woman over in [the] Student Services [office] said it would be difficult [for me to continue matriculating in my major] after I did poorly one semester right after my grandfather died. She said it would be better for me to change to an easier [academic] major so I could stay in school instead of flunking out. I wished she'd understood that I was going through a hard time personally and needed her support [for my academic endeavors]. </pre> <p>Participants also occasionally reported that there were few role models available in their academic major or future career choice. One interviewee stated,</p> <pre> I'm one of four Black students in my whole department. There are no Black professors [in my department], much less the entire college of Engineering. This is sad because we have to mentor and support each other and there's no one to help prepare us for what we have to face being a Black engineer in a predominantly White [field]. </pre> <p>Participants also occasionally indicated that they experienced social isolation on campus. One interviewee reported,</p> <pre> I feel real alone here sometimes. It's a competitive environment and everybody's trying to outdo each other. I wish people were more collaborative and valued connecting with other people as a way to survive here. </pre> <p>Religious and Spiritual Strategies to Deal With Academic and Career-Related Challenges Participants generally reported that they prayed as a religious or spiritual strategy to deal with academic and career-related challenges. For example, one interviewee stated,</p> <pre> When I'm discouraged about school, I just stop what I'm doing and pray about whatever's bothering me. Prayer gives me the courage and strength to keep on keeping on, especially when I feel like I'm at the end of my rope.... Sometimes I can't do anything but pray to deal with all the crap I deal with [on this campus]. You don't know Don't know (DK, DKed) "Don't know the trade." A Street expression used whenever one party lacks knowledge of a trade or receives conflicting instructions from the other party. what's around the corner in terms of what you'll face, but praying allows me to let go of my problems and let God handle [them]. </pre> <p>Participants also typically attended church and read the Bible to address the challenges they faced regarding academic and career issues. Other religious and spiritual strategies occasionally used to deal with academic and career-related challenges included participating in group Bible study Bible study may refer to:
Indicators of Success in Future Career or Occupation Interviewees typically reported that indicators of success in their future career or occupation included living up to their potential, making money, and being happy. With regard to the last category, which was in the typical range, one participant stated,</p> <pre> Although making money is primary for a lot of people, it's not what drives me in terms of being happy. I don't think I could be happy if my focus was solely on money. The love of money is the root of all evil, according to [the Bible], so I don't want to get too attached to that at the sacrifice of my happiness. </pre> <p>Three variant categories, balancing work and personal life, being well-known in their field or occupation, and knowing they helped others through their job or occupation, emerged from the indicators of future success domain. Regarding the last category, one interviewee indicated,</p> <pre> I think about what I want to do in my life and think that I can't just get a degree in something that will [only] provide me with financial security. I have to know that I'm going to make a difference in helping people, no matter what career I choose. </pre> <p>Discussion Results indicated that religion and spirituality indeed were important to the career development of many African American college students. The dimensions we identified, both typical and variant, painted a portrait of how religion and spirituality could play roles in the lives of many African Americans in the context of pursuing their career goals. For example, religion and spirituality seemed to aid some participants by motivating them to aspire to aspire to verb aim for, desire, pursue, hope for, long for, crave, seek out, wish for, dream about, yearn for, hunger for, hanker after, be eager for, set your heart on, set your sights on, be ambitious for certain careers and to seek relevant educational opportunities in pursuit of those careers. Although an indicator of future occupational success for many of our participants was to make money, at the same time, these participants believed it was important to help or serve others through their work or vocation. Furthermore, religion and spirituality served as critical buffers against the challenges many participants encountered while pursuing their career goals and aspirations aspirations npl → aspiraciones fpl (= ambition); ambición f aspirations npl (= hopes, ambition) → aspirations fpl on a predominantly White university campus. It is interesting that spirituality, more so than religion, seemed to be a dominant factor in the career development of many of the African American participants in our study. Previous research has shown that a core component of spirituality, the process of meaning making, is significantly predictive of career behaviors, such as career choice and career transition (Lips-Wiersma, 2002). Our findings highlight the role of spirituality in the career development of African American college students in providing critical emotional support during the process of choosing a career. Rather than engaging in self-doubts about choice of career or educational pursuits, many of our participants felt that their life's purpose was being fulfilled through their career choice. In researching the impact of spirituality on career behaviors, Lips-Wiersma contended that rather than attempting to assess what spirituality is for individuals, researchers should explore what spirituality does for these persons. It is important to note, however, that a small number of participants indicated that neither religion nor spirituality played a role in their career development. Our results also indicated that spiritual and religious activities, such as praying, reading the Bible, and attending church, provided specific concrete activities by which African American college students might alleviate academic- and career-related stress. In particular, for some participants religion and spirituality seemed to provide important opportunities for quiet reflection and connecting with a Higher Power. Moreover, all of the African American interviewees in our study noted that prayer was a useful strategy for dealing with school- and career-related challenges, even for those who indicated that religion and spirituality did not play a central role in their career development. Similarly, Mattis (2002) found that both prayer and reading the Bible helped African American women to interpret important events. As one participant noted in the current study, "praying allows me to let go of my problems and let God handle [them]." Religious and spiritual activities might also provide important psychological and emotional buffers against experiences with overt Public; open; manifest. The term overt is used in Criminal Law in reference to conduct that moves more directly toward the commission of an offense than do acts of planning and preparation that may ultimately lead to such conduct. OVERT. Open. racism that were reported by the participants (Mattis & Jagers, 2001). Our findings also suggest that some African American college students incorporate religion and spirituality in order to "make a way out of no way," particularly in social contexts such as predominantly White higher education higher education Study beyond the level of secondary education. Institutions of higher education include not only colleges and universities but also professional schools in such fields as law, theology, medicine, business, music, and art. settings where few or no African American role models may exist. Although participants did not connect racist incidents to the use of specific religious and spiritual activities, it is reasonable to consider that these activities might help provide some participants with constructive means for dealing with such adversities (e.g., finding the inner strength to continue with educational pursuits in the face of oppression or discrimination). Parents were reported to be important in many participants' religious and spiritual lives as well. In particular, the African American college students in our study indicated that their parents played a significant role in encouraging and enforcing their religious and spiritual beliefs and behaviors. However, a few participants described an initial distancing from religion and spirituality in college that resulted from negative reactions to parental insistence on religious and spiritual involvement. These participants described later returning to their religious and spiritual beliefs on their own. Parental religious and spiritual influences seemed important in imparting im·part tr.v. im·part·ed, im·part·ing, im·parts 1. To grant a share of; bestow: impart a subtle flavor; impart some advice. 2. core values and principles for living (e.g., the Golden Rule) to some participants. Such values also seemed to be related to participants' career development by reflecting specific career choices and motivations that supported these principles. The results also underscored the overall importance of parents to the career development of African American college students. In fact, both parental support and lack of support appeared to influence many participants' career development. Mattis and Jagers (2001) asserted that spirituality and religion are socially nested within both families and communities. Taken together, the results of our investigation support this assertion by indicating that parental teachings and influences in this regard seem to facilitate the career development of many African American college students. We also found that religion and spirituality provided many African American college students with a career focus that was reflective of helping others. Although many participants noted that occupational success in the form of making money was important to them, connecting with and helping others in meaningful ways were also important. Some scholars have referred to the impact of religion and spirituality on career choice as following a vocation or "calling" (Bogart, 1994; Colozzi & Colozzi, 2000). Previous research has suggested that religion and spirituality can help many African Americans to recognize their life purposes and destiny (Mattis, 2002). Moreover, perceiving their career choice as a calling might provide further emotional boost and self-confidence to some African American college students, particularly as challenges arise in their academic environments. Limitations Our exploratory findings should be considered in light of several potential limitations. For instance, although our sample size is consistent with other qualitative investigations using CQR methodology, the use of a small, nonrandom, and regionally limited sample likely affects the generalizability of our findings. Furthermore, the use of traditional college-age university students limited the range of a number of demographic variables, such as socioeconomic status and age. In addition, it is possible that some of our results were attributed uniquely to the predominantly White private university setting from which the African American students were drawn. Future researchers might examine both cohort cohort /co·hort/ (ko´hort) 1. in epidemiology, a group of individuals sharing a common characteristic and observed over time in the group. 2. and longitudinal lon·gi·tu·di·nal adj. Running in the direction of the long axis of the body or any of its parts. effects of religion and spirituality on the career development of African American college students in a variety of college settings, along with the experiences of African American students with non-Christian (e.g., Islam) beliefs and spiritual practices. This study's findings may also be limited to the extent that they are based on one set of researchers' interpretations of one set of data pertaining to the religious, spiritual, and career development experiences of African American college students. Although we attempted to account for our biases and expectations in the context of analyzing our data, it is possible that our perceptions uniquely influenced aspects of the investigation (e.g., the formulation formulation /for·mu·la·tion/ (for?mu-la´shun) the act or product of formulating. American Law Institute Formulation of our research questions), which in turn may have affected the data we acquired. To this end, it is important that other researchers replicate rep·li·cate v. 1. To duplicate, copy, reproduce, or repeat. 2. To reproduce or make an exact copy or copies of genetic material, a cell, or an organism. n. A repetition of an experiment or a procedure. and extend our study. From this extension, additional categories and domains could emerge, resulting in a more comprehensive understanding of the variables of interest in this investigation. Conclusions Although this study was exploratory in nature, career counselors may want to consider some of the current results in the context of facilitating the career development of African American clients. Historically, the fields of counseling and psychology have downplayed the importance of religious and spiritual variables in clients' lives in general. Indeed, there may be compelling ethical reasons for doing so, primarily in terms of not imposing spiritual and religious values on others. However, our results suggest that ignoring the primacy pri·ma·cy n. pl. pri·ma·cies 1. The state of being first or foremost. 2. Ecclesiastical The office, rank, or province of primate. of religion and spirituality in many African American college students' lives could have harmful effects, particularly to highly religious and/or spiritual clients. At a minimum, consciously or unconsciously prohibiting discussion on these topics may prevent the development of psychologically important dimensions that could aid many African American college students in developing motivation and resilience resilience (r  ·zilˑ·yens),n that may be critical to their career development. Because our results also underscore The underscore character (_) is often used to make file, field and variable names more readable when blank spaces are not allowed. For example, NOVEL_1A.DOC, FIRST_NAME and Start_Routine. (character) underscore - _, ASCII 95. the potentially different, although somewhat overlapping, roles of spirituality and religion in the career development of some African American college students, it seems crucial that career counselors assess these dimensions in terms of their impact in the lives of African American college students. Several authors (e.g., Frame, 2003; Kelley, 1995; Richards & Bergin, 1997) have discussed ways to integrate religious and spiritual assessment in counseling and psychotherapy psychotherapy, treatment of mental and emotional disorders using psychological methods. Psychotherapy, thus, does not include physiological interventions, such as drug therapy or electroconvulsive therapy, although it may be used in combination with such methods. , and such assessment techniques could be applicable to career counseling settings. For example, counselors might include questions about clients' religious or spiritual beliefs and practices in the context of initial career assessment interviews to determine the potential relevance of this aspect of their personhood per·son·hood n. The state or condition of being a person, especially having those qualities that confer distinct individuality: "finding her own personhood as a campus activist" to their overall career development. Such interventions could normalize normalize to convert a set of data by, for example, converting them to logarithms or reciprocals so that their previous non-normal distribution is converted to a normal one. or even facilitate the discussion of religious or spiritual issues in relation to clients' career choice and development. The examination of African American college students' religious and spiritual beliefs and practices in career counseling could not only provide them some insight into their current approaches to career choice but also could assist them in purposeful pur·pose·ful adj. 1. Having a purpose; intentional: a purposeful musician. 2. Having or manifesting purpose; determined: entered the room with a purposeful look. and conscious career decision making throughout their lives. References Ashar, H., & Lane-Maher, M. (2004). Success and spirituality in the new business paradigm. Journal of Management Inquiry, 13, 249-260. Billingsley, A., & Caldwell, C. H. (1991). The church, the family and the school in the African American community. 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Bogart, G. (1994). Finding a life's calling. Journal of Humanistic Psychology humanistic psychology Twentieth-century movement in psychology, developed largely in reaction against behaviourism and psychoanalysis, that emphasizes the importance of values, intentions, and meaning in the compass of the individual. , 34, 6-37. Brodsky, A. (2000). The role of religion in the lives of resilient See resiliency. , urban, African American single mothers. Journal of Community Psychology, 28, 199-219. Christian, M. D., & Barbarin, O. A. (2001). Cultural resources and psychological adjustment of African American children: Effects of spirituality and racial attribution at·tri·bu·tion n. 1. The act of attributing, especially the act of establishing a particular person as the creator of a work of art. 2. . Journal of Black Psychology, 27, 43-63. Colozzi, E. A., & Colozzi, L. C. (2000). College students' callings and careers: An integrated value-oriented perspective. In D. A. Luzzo (Ed.), Career counseling of college students: An empirical guide to strategies that work (pp. 63-91). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association The American Psychological Association (APA) is a professional organization representing psychology in the US. Description and history The association has around 150,000 members and an annual budget of around $70m. . Constantine, M. G., Gainor, K. A., Ahluwalia, M. K., & Berkel, L. A. (2003). Independent and interdependent in·ter·de·pen·dent adj. Mutually dependent: "Today, the mission of one institution can be accomplished only by recognizing that it lives in an interdependent world with conflicts and overlapping interests" self-construals, individualism individualism Political and social philosophy that emphasizes individual freedom. Modern individualism emerged in Britain with the ideas of Adam Smith and Jeremy Bentham, and the concept was described by Alexis de Tocqueville as fundamental to the American temper. , collectivism, and harmony control in African Americans. Journal of Black Psychology, 229, 87-101. Constantine, M. G., Lewis, E. L., Conner, L. C., & Sanchez, D. (2000). Addressing spiritual and religious issues in counseling African Americans: Implications for counselor training and practice. Counseling and Values, 45, 28-39. Constantine, M. G., Wilton, L., Gainor, K. A., & Lewis, E. L. (2002). Religious participation, spirituality, and coping among African American college students. Journal of College Student Development Journal of College Student Development is an academic journal founded in 1959 and is the official publication of the American College Personnel Association. The journal publishes scholarly articles and reviews from a wide variety of academic fields related to college , 43, 605-613. Ellison, C. G. (1993). Religious involvement and self-perception among Black Americans. Social Forces, 71, 1027-1055. Fox, L. A. (2003). The role of the church in career guidance and development: A review of the literature 1960-early 2000s. Journal of Career Development, 29, 167-182. Frame, M. W. (2003). Integrating religion and spirituality into counseling: A comprehensive approach. Pacific Grove Pacific Grove, residential and resort city (1990 pop. 16,117), Monterey co., W central Calif., on a point where Monterey Bay meets the Pacific Ocean; inc. 1889. , CA: Brooks/Cole. Hill, C. E., Thompson, B. J., & Williams, E. N. (1997). A guide to conducting consensual qualitative research. The Counseling Psychologist, 25, 517-572. Howard, B. S., & Howard, J. R. (1997). Occupation as spiritual activity. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 51, 181-185. Jackson, A. P., & Sears, S. J. (1992). Implications of an Africentric worldview world·view n. In both senses also called Weltanschauung. 1. The overall perspective from which one sees and interprets the world. 2. A collection of beliefs about life and the universe held by an individual or a group. in reducing stress for African American women. Journal of Counseling & Development, 71, 184-190. Kelley, E. W. (1995). Religion and spirituality in counseling and psychotherapy. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association The American Counseling Association (ACA) is a non-profit, professional organization that is dedicated to the counseling profession. ACA is the world's second largest association exclusively representing professional counselors. . Lips-Wiersma, M. (2002). The influence of spiritual "meaning making" on career behavior. Journal of Management Development, 21, 497-520. Mattis, J. S. (2002). Religion and spirituality in the meaning-making and coping experiences of African American women: A qualitative analysis Qualitative Analysis Securities analysis that uses subjective judgment based on nonquantifiable information, such as management expertise, industry cycles, strength of research and development, and labor relations. . Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26, 309-321. Mattis, J. S., Fontenot, D. L., Hatcher-Kay, C. A., Grayman, N. A., & Beale, R. L. (2004). Religiosity re·li·gi·os·i·ty n. 1. The quality of being religious. 2. Excessive or affected piety. Noun 1. religiosity - exaggerated or affected piety and religious zeal religiousism, pietism, religionism , optimism, and pessimism pessimism, philosophical opinion or doctrine that evil predominates over good; the opposite of optimism. Systematic forms of pessimism may be found in philosophy and religion. among African Americans. Journal of Black Psychology, 30, 187-207. Mattis, J. S., & Jagers, R. J. (2001). A relational framework for the study of religiosity and spirituality in the lives of African Americans. Journal of Community Psychology, 29, 519-539. Mattis, J. S., Jagers, R. J., Hatcher hatch 1 n. 1. a. An opening, as in the deck of a ship, in the roof or floor of a building, or in an aircraft. b. The cover for such an opening. c. A hatchway. d. , C. A., Lawhon, G. D., Murphy, E. J., & Murray, Y. F. (2000). Religiosity, volunteerism, and community involvement among African American men: An exploratory analysis. Journal of Community Psychology, 28, 391-406. McAdoo, H. (1995). Stress levels, family help patterns, and religiosity in middle- and working-class African American single mothers. Journal of Black Psychology, 21, 424-449. Milliman, J., Czaplewski, A. J., & Ferguson, J. (2003). Workplace spirituality and employee work attitudes. Journal of Organizational Change, 16, 426-447. Myers, L. J. (1993). Understanding an Afrocentric worldview: Introduction to an optimal psychology (2nd ed.). Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt. Neighbors, H. W., & Jackson. J. S. (Eds.). (1996). Mental health in Black America. Thousand Oaks Thousand Oaks, residential city (1990 pop. 104,352), Ventura co., S Calif., in a farm area; inc. 1964. Avocados, citrus, vegetables, strawberries, and nursery products are grown. , CA: Sage. Ondeck, D. M. (2002). Religion and spirituality. Home Health Care Management & Practice, 14, 231-232. Phillips, F. L. S. (2000). The effects of spirituality on the adjustment to college of African American students who attend a predominantly White institution. Dissertation dis·ser·ta·tion n. A lengthy, formal treatise, especially one written by a candidate for the doctoral degree at a university; a thesis. dissertation Noun 1. Abstracts International, 61, 527A. Ponterotto, J. G. (1998). Charting a course for research in multicultural counseling training. The Counseling Psychologist, 26, 43-68. Richards, P. S., & Bergin, A. E. (1997). A spiritual strategy for counseling and psychotherapy. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Seaward, B. L. (1995). Reflections on human spirituality for the worksite. American Journal of Health Promotion, 9, 165-168. Utsey, S. O., Adams, E. P., & Bolden, M. (2000). Development and initial validation See validate. validation - The stage in the software life-cycle at the end of the development process where software is evaluated to ensure that it complies with the requirements. of the Africultural Coping Systems Inventory. Journal of Black Psychology, 26, 194-215. Walker, K. L., & Dixon, V. (2002). Spirituality and academic performance among African American college students. Journal of Black Psychology, 28, 107-121. APPENDIX Interview Protocol * Do you make a distinction for yourself in terms of whether you define yourself as a spiritual or a religious person? If yes, how does this happen? * Tell me about your religious or spiritual beliefs and the various ways in which you might express them. * What types of religious or spiritual activities do you participate in, if at all? * What roles or influences have religion or spirituality played in your life thus far in terms of influencing your choice of academic major or your future career choice? How do you see your religious or spiritual beliefs reflected in your academic major or the career you are pursuing or considering? * Please tell me about a time in which you had to deal with a difficult or challenging situation related to matriculating on this campus. What specific strategies did you use in dealing with this situation? Did you rely on any religious or spiritual resources to get through this situation? If so, what were they and how were they helpful? * To what degree do you believe your own religious or spiritual beliefs will play a role in your work life or career in the future? * Is there anything else you'd like to say or add in terms of this interview or with regard to any of the interview questions? Madonna G. Constantine, Marie L. Miville, and Anika K. Warren, Department of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, Teachers College, Columbia University Teachers College, Columbia University (sometimes referred to simply as Teachers College; also referred to as Teachers College of Columbia University or the Columbia University Graduate School of Education ; Kathy A. Gainor, Department of Counseling, Human Development and Educational Leadership, Montclair State University History Montclair State was established in 1908 as "Montclair Normal School" in response to a growing need for teachers. It was renamed "Montclair State Teachers College" in 1927, when it developed a program of educating secondary school teachers through a Bachelor of Arts ; Ma'at E. L. Lewis-Coles, Department of Counseling, John Jay College of Criminal Justice John Jay College of Criminal Justice: see New York, City University of. . Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Madonna G. Constantine, Department of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, Teachers College, Columbia University, 525 West 120th Street, Box 92, New York New York, state, United States New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of , NY 10027 (e-mail: mc816@columbia.edu).
TABLE 1 Summary of Domains, Categories, and Subcategories From the
Cross-Analysis
Domain, Category, and Subcategory Frequency
Degree of identification as religious and/or spiritual
Identify as spiritual but not religious Typical
Identify primarily as religious Variant
Identify as both religious and spiritual Variant
Parents' influence on religious and spiritual beliefs
Felt forced by parents to attend church weekly while Typical
growing up
--initially "rebelled" against attending church after Variant
going to college because participant was no longer
"forced" to attend by parents
Parents encouraged participant to live by the Golden Rule Variant
in dealing with others
Parents did not have strong religious beliefs that Variant
influenced participants' own beliefs
Roles of religion and spirituality in participants' career
development
Believes God has a unique plan for her or his life Typical
through career choice
--felt a "calling" by God to pursue career goal Variant
Believes it is important to help/serve others through Typical
one's work or vocation
Made me a better person in general Variant
Religion and spirituality do not have much to do with Variant
academic or career choice
Challenges in dealing with academic and career-related issues
Racial discrimination faced in college makes life Typical
difficult
--by peers Typical
--by faculty members or university support staff Variant
Feeling discouraged because of lack of support for Variant
academic endeavors or future career choice
--by parents Variant
--by faculty members or university support staff Variant
Few role models available in academic major or future Variant
career choice
Social isolation Variant
Religious and spiritual strategies to deal with academic and
career-related challenges
Prayer General
Church attendance Typical
Read Bible Typical
Participate in group Bible study Variant
Participate in church choir Variant
Meditate Variant
Indicators of success in future career or occupation
Live up to my full potential Typical
Make money Typical
Be happy Typical
Balance work and personal life Variant
Be well-known/famous in field or occupation Variant
Knowing participant helped others through job or Variant
occupation
Note. We identified a category and subcategory as general if it applied
to all 12 cases, typical if it applied to 6-11 cases, and variant if it
applied to 3-5 cases. Categories for which there were fewer than 3 cases
are not shown in this table.
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