Relationships between parental attachment, work and family roles, and life satisfaction.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between parental attachment and satisfaction with work and family roles, as well as the relationship of these variables to life satisfaction. Results from a multiple regression analysis indicated that satisfaction with work and marriage, but not parenting satisfaction or parental attachment, was significantly related to life satisfaction. Responses to open-ended questions indicated that parental attachment relationships affected participants' career, marriage, parenting, and life satisfaction in varied and complex ways. Implications for counselors and directions for future research are discussed.

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Barnett and Hyde (2001) stated that "one of the most dramatic markers of the late 20th and early 21st centuries is the astonishingly fast pace of change in the work and family roles of women and men in the United States" (p. 781). Increasingly, women and men are expressing a strong commitment to both work and family domains. This can lead to both increased role strain and, conversely, increased life satisfaction (Perrone, 2000). Super (1990) stated that individuals occupy many different roles over the course of their life span, including career, home and family, community, study, and leisure. Satisfaction in these different roles is related to overall life satisfaction. Life satisfaction and overall well-being have been empirically linked to work satisfaction (Bonebright, Clay, & Ankenman, 2000) and to family satisfaction (Salvatore & Munos Sastre, 2001). For example, a longitudinal study of dual-earner couples demonstrated that both work role quality and marital role quality were significantly related to psychological distress over time (Barnett, Raudenbush, Brennan, Pleck, & Marshall, 1995). If career counselors understand the dynamics of work-family interface and can help clients combine work and family roles in productive and satisfying ways, they have the opportunity to significantly enhance the quality of life for many people.

Most individuals are introduced to work and family roles as children by observing their parents. Attachment to parents may continue to have a profound impact on multiple life roles as individuals become adults. There is evidence to suggest that parental attachment relationships affect work, family, and life satisfaction in many ways (Sumer & Knight, 2001; Vasquez, Durik, & Hyde, 2002). The purpose of the present study was to examine the relationship between parental attachment and satisfaction with work and family roles, as well as the relationship of these variables to life satisfaction. This study was informed by Bowlby's (1982) attachment theory.

Attachment Theory

Bowlby (1982) defined parental attachment as a stable connection that provides a feeling of safety and security for the child. Parental attachment can provide a secure base for children to explore and engage in developmental behaviors (Hazan & Shaver, 1994). Continued parental attachment in adulthood is also important. According to Kenny and Donaldson (1991), parents may not always serve as the primary attachment figure for their adult children, but they never relinquish the attachment figure role. Berman, Heiss, and Sperling (1994) defined continued attachment as "preoccupation, longing, concern about, and desire for contact with the attachment figure" (p. 178). According to attachment theory, the attachment system is central to the functioning of all other behavioral systems, including mating, caregiving, and affiliative behavioral systems (Shaver, Hazan, & Bradshaw, 1988).

Attachment theory has been applied to the study of career development and counseling. Blustein, Prezioso, and Schultheiss (1995) suggested that attachment relationships significantly influence an individual's career exploration in that insecure relationships fail to provide a dependable base from which individuals can explore career options without fear or anxiety. Blustein, Walbridge, Friedlander, and Palladino (1991) found that young adults who had strong attachment relationships with their parents were more likely to engage in career exploration and more likely to pursue satisfying careers. Schultheiss (2003) advocated a relational approach to career counseling, in which the interface between clients' careers and their significant relationships are examined.

Research supports the assertions of attachment theorists regarding the importance of parental attachment to satisfaction in various life roles. Sumer and Knight (2001) reported that individuals with a secure attachment pattern were more likely to experience positive spillover from work to home and from home to work. Vasquez, Durik, and Hyde (2002) found that individuals with less secure attachment relationships reported greater concerns about their family life, romantic relationships, and parenting than did those who experienced secure attachment relationships. O'Brien, Friedman, Tipton, and Linn (2000) found that paternal supports played a significant role in the career aspirations of young women. Specifically, as young women moved from high school toward the world of work, paternal attachment appeared to facilitate the development of career self-efficacy. Whiston and Keller (2004) provided a comprehensive review of theory and research linking family of origin influences and career development. They noted a scarcity of research with adult samples. Most studies of family influence on career development were based on high school and college students. The present study provides a different perspective by examining these factors among adults in their 30s. Furthermore, Whiston and Keller cited several researchers who have called for more research to fully examine the interface between work and family variables.

Method

Participants

Participants were 108 individuals (42 men, 66 women) who have been participating in a longitudinal study via annual mailed surveys since 1988. All of the participants graduated from high school in 1988 and ranged in age from 32 to 34 years. The purpose of the ongoing longitudinal study was to gain a greater understanding of academically talented individuals' career and life development beyond the high school years. In 1988, directors of guidance in all of the high schools in a midwestern state were asked to identify, as well as distribute and collect questionnaires from, the two highest ranking graduates in schools graduating fewer than 250 students and the five highest ranking students in schools graduating more than 250 students. Merit Scholar finalists and semifinalists who were not among the top graduates were also included in the study.

There were 1,724 participants in the initial survey, which represented 92% of eligible public school seniors and 78% of eligible private school seniors. Unfortunately, response rates eroded drastically, especially in the first few years of the study, because a large number of students changed addresses and did not leave forwarding addresses. Approximately 500 participants were lost in 1990, 400 in 1991, and 400 in 1992. Many of the surveys were returned marked "cannot forward." Thus, many of those who did not continue in the study did not have the opportunity because they never received their follow-up survey. The attrition rate in subsequent years was significantly lower, with an average of 30 participants lost each year. Again, the majority of those lost were due to address changes. One reason for the lower attrition rate after the first 3 years was that participants seemed to settle down in one location for longer than a year after that time. Furthermore, the researchers added the question "Please list the address where you can be reached next year at this time if you anticipate that it will be different from your current address." Some participants provided their parents' address, which was more stable than their own, and their parents forwarded the surveys to them. The data in this study were collected at the 15th annual survey.

All of the participants had college degrees, and an additional 30% had master's degrees, whereas 24% had doctoral degrees. Among the respondents, 94% were Caucasian, 2.5% were Asian American, 1.5 % were African American, 1.3% were Native American, and 0.7% were Latino/Latina. Most of the participants resided in midwestern states (81%), although 9% were living in the West, 6% were living in the South, and 4% were living in the East. The majority of participants were employed full time (75%), whereas 11% were employed part time, 10% were full-time homemakers, 2% were looking for work, and 2% were full-time graduate students. Thirty-two percent of participants had careers in business (e.g., manager), 27% had careers in health care or the helping professions (e.g., doctor, social worker), 18% had careers in engineering or science (e.g., engineer, chemist), 18% had careers in education (e.g., teacher, professor), and 5% had artistic or creative types of careers (e.g., architect, interior designer). Most participants were married (82%), although 11% were single, 4% were living with a partner, and 3% were divorced. Of those currently married, most were in their first marriage, with only 4% in their second marriage. The years of marriage ranged from 6 months to 13 years, with a mean of 7.2 years. Seventy-nine percent of participants had children, with the mean number of children being 1.5 (range = 0-4). The age of participants' oldest child ranged from 6 months to 12 years, with a mean age of 4.6 years. The majority of participants reported that their parents were married (74%). Thirteen percent of participants' parents were divorced, and 13% of participants had a parent who was deceased.

Procedure

The institutional review board of Ball State University gave approval for the present study. Participants were mailed a survey with a stamped, addressed, return envelope and were asked to return the completed materials to the researchers (the authors of this article). They also received a summary of the results from the previous year's study. There was no incentive given for participation, other than the promise to send a summary of results in the next year's survey, as has been the custom each year.

Instruments

Parental attachment. The Continued Attachment Scale-Parent Version (CAS; Berman et al., 1994) was used to measure the cognitive and behavioral components of parental attachment. There are two separate subscales of the CAS: the CAS-Mother and the CAS-Father. Each subscale contains six identical items, but the participant is asked to answer the questions twice (once for mother and once for father). Participants responded to questions on a 5-point Likert-type scale. The coefficient alpha was .74 for the CAS-Mother and .80 for the CAS-Father. Four-week test-retest reliability was .85 for the CAS-Mother and .82 for the CAS-Father. Convergent validity was demonstrated by significant correlations with several attachment scales.

Life satisfaction. This variable was assessed using the five-item Likert-type Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985). Two-month test-retest reliability for the SWLS was .87. Concurrent validity was demonstrated through moderate correlations of the SWLS with 11 other measures of subjective well-being. Content validity was shown through correlations of the SWLS with interviewer estimates of life satisfaction. Discriminant validity was demonstrated through a low correlation between the SWLS and the Marlowe--Crowne Social Desirability Scale (Crowne & Marlowe, 1960 [Diener et al., 1985]).

Work satisfaction. Work satisfaction was measured using the four-item Personal Growth subscale combined with the one-item measure of global job satisfaction from the Multidimensional Job Satisfaction Scale (MJSS; Shouksmith, Pajo, & Jepsen, 1990). The MJSS contains 11 subscales that measure different dimensions of job satisfaction. Alpha coefficients ranged from .75 to .92. Internal validity was measured by significant correlations between each subscale and the overall measure of job satisfaction (Shouksmith et al., 1990). The measure of global job satisfaction consisted of the following one-item statement: "On the whole this job, taken all around and considering all its aspects, is a very good one." Shouksmith et al. found that the subscale most highly correlated with global job satisfaction was the Personal Growth subscale. The four items for this subscale state, "On the whole, your job: (1) allows you to reach your full potential, (2) is a secure one, (3) is a challenging and exciting job, (4) makes the most of your particular abilities and skills." In the present study, the global job satisfaction measure and the Personal Growth subscale were combined to make a five-item measure of global work satisfaction. Participants rated these five items on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Higher scores indicated higher levels of satisfaction. The alpha coefficient for the five-item job satisfaction scale used in the present study was .84. The internal consistency was, in fact, higher with the global job satisfaction item added than without the global job satisfaction item. The alpha coefficient for the four-item Personal Growth subscale was .80.

Marital satisfaction. The scale used to measure satisfaction with marriage/romantic relationships was the three-item Kansas Marital Satisfaction Scale (Schumm et al., 1986). If individuals were not married but were in a committed relationship, they were asked to complete the scale based on their relationship with their partner. Participants responded using a 7-point Likert-type response format, ranging from 1 (extremely dissatisfied) to 7 (extremely satisfied). Factorial validity for the Kansas Marital Satisfaction Scale was demonstrated in a study by Canfield, Schumm, Swihart, and Eggerichs (1990). In a study of couples from eight different states (Chang, Schumm, Coulson, Bollman, & Jurich, 1994), coefficient alpha was .95 and discriminant validity was shown through comparison with the Kansas Parental Satisfaction Scale.

Parental satisfaction. The three-item Kansas Parental Satisfaction Scale (James et al., 1985) was administered. Participants responded using a 7-point Likert-type response format, ranging from 1 (extremely dissatisfied) to 7 (extremely satisfied). James et al. reported adequate internal consistency reliability (coefficient alpha = .84) and significant differences between item means. A study by Chang et al. (1994) reported a coefficient alpha of .85 for this scale and demonstrated discriminant validity through comparison with the Kansas Marital Satisfaction Scale. Factorial validity for this scale was demonstrated with a sample of interracial couples (Rho & Schumm, 1989).

Open-ended questions. Participants were asked to describe how their relationship with their parents affected each of the following areas: career development, marital or romantic relationships, parenting of their own children, and overall life satisfaction. Participants responded to these questions in a narrative format.

Results

Quantitative

Means and standard deviations for the variables used in the present study are given in Table 1. Examination of intercorrelations revealed that continued attachment to mother and continued attachment to father were significantly correlated to each other (.67), but neither was significantly correlated with the other variables in the study (see Table 2). Life satisfaction was significantly correlated with work satisfaction (.42), marital satisfaction (.46), and parental satisfaction (.34). Marital satisfaction was significantly correlated with parental satisfaction (.33). Significance was determined by an alpha level of .01.

In order to examine the potential role of gender, analyses of variance were conducted with the following variables: continued attachment to mother, continued attachment to father, life satisfaction, work satisfaction, marital satisfaction, and parental satisfaction. There was a significant effect demonstrating a gender difference in continued attachment to mother (F = 23.16, p < .001). Examination of means revealed that women reported greater continued attachment to their mothers (M = 20.10, SD = 4.24) than did men (M= 16.10, SD = 3.83). There were no significant effects for gender and the following variables: continued attachment to father (F = 1.44, p = .23), life satisfaction (F = 1.15, p = .29), work satisfaction (F = 0.001, p = .97), marital satisfaction (F = 0.004, p = .95), or parental satisfaction (F = 0.006, p = .94).

A multivariate analysis of variance was conducted to examine the effect of parents' marital status on participants' continued attachment to their mothers and fathers. The multivariate effect was significant (Wilks's A = 0.63, F= 27.92, p < .001). The univariate F test for continued attachment to mother was not significant (F = 0.94, p = .34). However, the univariate F test for continued attachment to father was significant (F = 34.33, p < .001). Therefore, we know there were differences in continued attachment to father based on the marital status of participants' parents. Examination of means revealed that participants whose parents were married reported greater continued attachment to their fathers (M = 17.03, SD = 4.49) than did participants whose parents were not married or were divorced (M = 11.64, SD = 5.05).

A stepwise multiple regression analysis was conducted to examine how much variance each of the following variables contributed to life satisfaction: work satisfaction, marital satisfaction, parental satisfaction, continued attachment to mother, and continued attachment to father (see Table 3). At the first step, work satisfaction was entered. The [R.sup.2] change at this step was significant ([DELTA][R.sup.2] = .19; [DELTA]F = 12.47, p < .01). At the second step, marital satisfaction was entered, and again the [R.sup.2] change was significant ([DELTA][R.sup.2] = .20; [DELTA]F = 17.11, p < .01). At the third step, parental satisfaction was entered, and the [R.sup.2] change was not significant ([DELTA][R.sup.2] = .02; [DELTA]F = 1.29, p > .01). At the fourth step, both continued attachment to mother and continued attachment to father were entered, and the [R.sup.2] change was not significant ([DELTA][R.sup.2] = .02; [DELTA]F = 1.02, p > .01). Thus, only work satisfaction and marital satisfaction contributed significantly to the variance in life satisfaction.

Qualitative

A research team consisting of a counseling psychologist (first author) and two doctoral students (second and third authors) examined responses to open-ended questions. The written responses were analyzed using Miles and Huberman's (1994) chunking method, which begins with a discussion of the purpose of the analysis. The purpose of this analysis was to identify major themes among responses to questions about the relationship of parental attachment to career, marriage, parenting, and life satisfaction. The three members of the research team generated themes independently and then came together to agree on specific categories. Next, the team members independently assigned data to categories. Finally, the team came together to assign responses to categories. The three most prevalent categories of responses for each question are reported in the following sections.

Impact of parental attachment on career development. The impact of attachment to parents on participants' career development was examined. The most common category of response was the theme of parents giving career-related encouragement and support (37%). An example of this type of response was "They have been very supportive of my career and have helped me succeed." The second most common category was the theme of parents providing advice and guidance (14%). An example of this category of response was "They gave me advice to stay patient, focused and committed." The third most common category of response to this question was the theme of parents acting as career role models (10%). An example of this type of response was "I am following in my mother's footsteps. She was also a teacher."

Impact of parental attachment on participants' marriage or romantic relationships. Participants were asked about the impact of attachment to their parents on their marriage or romantic relationships. The most frequent category of response was that participants wanted a relationship similar to their parents' relationship (22%). An example of this type of response was "They are good role models for a healthy, happy marriage." The second most frequent response category was that parental attachment had little or no impact on participants' marriage or romantic relationships (17%). An example of this type of response was "I'm not sure it has impacted my relationships at all." The third most common response category was that participants wanted relationships that were different from their parents' relationship (13%). An example of this type of response was "They showed me how I didn't want my marriage to be."

Impact of parental attachment on participants' parenting of their own children. Participants described how their parents influenced their parenting styles. The most common category of response was that parents were positive role models for child rearing (33%). An example of this type of response was "They showed me how I want to be with my kids." The second most common response category was that parents gave encouragement, advice, and support (14%). An example of this type of response was "My parents offered encouragement and support." The third most common category of response was that participants wanted to parent differently than they were parented (13%). An example of this type of response was "It made me a better parent because I learned what not to do."

Impact of parental attachment on participants' overall life satisfaction. In response to the influence of participants' relationships with their parents on their overall life satisfaction, the most frequent response category was that participants' current relationship with their parents contributed positively to life satisfaction (27%). For example, one participant stated, "I spend a lot of time with my parents which makes me happy." The second most common category was that the love and support of parents significantly enhanced participants' life satisfaction (21%). For example, one individual responded, "They have smoothed out the challenging times to help me maintain a constant happiness." The third most common response category was that participants' parents taught them skills and values (including religious values) that increased participants' life satisfaction (12%). An example of this type of response was "They taught me my values, morals, and ethics, and introduced me to God. They have taught me how to be happy with myself and life."

Discussion

Factors Contributing to Life Satisfaction

A multiple regression analysis was conducted to examine the relationship of parental attachment (continued attachment to mother and father) and satisfaction with work, marriage, and parenting roles to life satisfaction. Marital satisfaction and work satisfaction were found to be positively related to life satisfaction in the present sample. This finding is consistent with research that has demonstrated a relationship between satisfaction with life and satisfaction with work and family (Bonebright et al., 2000; Salvatore & Munos Sastre, 2001). However, parenting satisfaction did not relate directly to life satisfaction in the current study, which does not support past research. Parenting satisfaction was significantly correlated with marital satisfaction. Rogers and White (1998) stated that the parent role is highly salient for both men and women and that parenting satisfaction may improve marital satisfaction through role spillover.

Relationship of Parental Attachment to Work, Family, and Life Satisfaction

Quantitative analysis did not support a relationship between parental attachment and the variables in this study. However, when allowed to respond in an open-ended, narrative format, participants described many ways in which parental attachment affected each of these roles (i.e., work, marriage, and parenting). It is possible that the quantitative measure used did not accurately assess their level of attachment or did not assess the most salient components of attachment for these participants, whereas the qualitative format allowed more freedom for participants to describe the unique ways they personally felt parental attachment had affected each area of their lives. The CAS focuses on quantity of current contact or thoughts about parents. Perhaps even without continued contact, the attachment from childhood was strong enough to make a continued impact for these adults.

Some participants indicated that their parents provided career-related encouragement, support, and guidance, and some saw their parents as positive career role models. This finding is consistent with past research, which has linked parental attachment relationships to career exploration and work satisfaction (Blustein et al., 1991; Blustein et al., 1995).

The parental attachment relationship often serves as the foundation or model for future relationships. The most frequent response to the question about the influence of parental attachment on romantic relationships was that participants wished to have a relationship that was similar to their parents' relationship. Hazan and Shaver (1994) suggested that adult attachment relationships mimic attachment relationships from childhood. Thus, it would be reasonable to assume that individuals would seek similar relationships when those relationships are seen as supportive and secure. However, some participants were unsure of the impact of their parents' relationship on their own relationships, and others stated that they wished to have relationships that were different from their parents' relationship. These responses could reflect insecure or ambivalent parental attachments.

When asked about the impact of parental attachment on parenting satisfaction, the most frequent types of responses indicated a positive effect. Many participants described how their parents were positive role models for child rearing and how their relationship with their parents helped them forge positive relationships with their own children. However, some individuals stated that they wanted to parent differently than they were parented. Thus, it seems that some parents imparted a model to emulate and others provided a model to oppose.

Finally, participants discussed the ways in which parental attachment affected their overall life satisfaction. The majority of participants reported that their relationship with their parents had a positive influence on life satisfaction. Some spoke about this positive influence in general terms, whereas others were more specific. More specific responses pointed to love and support, as well as the teaching of skills and values as important components of this positive influence. It is clear that parental attachment had a profound and largely positive impact on the life satisfaction of participants in the present study.

Participants with divorced parents were significantly less likely to report continued attachment to their fathers. There were no significant differences for continued attachment to their mothers. Researchers have found that secure attachment to one parent does not always coincide with secure attachment to the other parent (Collins & Reed, 1994; McCarthy, Moller, & Fouladi, 2001). Additionally, some research suggests that mothers are perceived as being consistently more supportive than fathers (Armsden, McCauley, Greenberg, Burke, & Mitchell, 1990; Haigler, Day, & Marshall, 1995).

Implications for Counselors

The importance of work and marital satisfaction to overall life satisfaction was demonstrated in the present study. Career counselors can help individuals explore the conflicts they may experience between the work role and other life roles as well as help clients learn how to manage these roles more effectively (Hartung & Rogers, 2000). Viers and Prouty (2001) identified work overload, decreased social networks, balancing work and family roles, individual identity conflicts, and discrepancies between personal and social norms as stress domains experienced by dual-career families. Additionally, Henderson (2000) indicated that encouraging clients to pursue their inherent talents can help them increase their work satisfaction, thus increasing their overall life satisfaction. Because spousal support has been found to be influential in becoming satisfied with one's work role, Jackson and Scharman (2002) suggested having the spouse of a client who is presenting with career concerns attend counseling with the client.

Counselors can assist individuals who are struggling with their marital or other significant relationships by helping them to identify areas of dissatisfaction in their relationships and to develop strategies for improvement. One way of doing this is to help individuals communicate mutual appreciation to their partner. Cobb, Davila, and Bradbury (2001) found that persons with a positive view of their partner and those who were supportive of their partner experienced a greater sense of happiness. Because of the numerous roles that individuals may be experiencing and how conflicts among these roles may affect a person's overall life satisfaction, Morgan and Foster (1999) suggested that counselors consider a cognitive developmental approach that will help individuals define themselves in their various roles as career person, spouse, and parent. When using this approach, counselors help clients develop frameworks that add meaning to career choices and experiences and ask clients to consider the interaction of the multiple roles that they occupy. The counselor tailors treatment to the client's level of cognitive functioning and takes contextual factors into account.

Limitations of the Present Study and Directions for Future Research

One limitation of this study was the relatively small sample size (108 participants). Because of the longitudinal nature of the study, it was not possible to recruit additional participants for the study. The small sample size did not allow for more sophisticated types of analysis, such as structural equations modeling, which may have yielded more detailed information about the paths between variables. Future researchers may wish to examine relationships between variables in this study with a larger sample size. Furthermore, participants in the present study were homogenous in terms of race. The majority of participants were Caucasian, which may limit the generalizability of findings. However, it may be noted that much of the previous research examining family-of-origin influences for career development in adults has focused on ethnic minority groups (Whiston & Keller, 2004), so this research population of Caucasians may add to existing knowledge. Future research could be conducted in this area with a more diverse sample within the same study to allow for examination of individual differences related to ethnicity.

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Kristin M. Perrone, L. Kay Webb, and Z. Vance Jackson, Department of Counseling Psychology, Ball State University. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Kristin M. Perrone, Department of Counseling Psychology, Ball State University, Muncie, IN 47306 (e-mail: [e-mail]).

TABLE 1 Means and Standard Deviations for the Variables Used in the
Present Study

Variable                        M      SD

Continued attachment to mother  18.52  4.51
Continued attachment to father  15.74  5.16
Life satisfaction               19.89  3.37
Work satisfaction               19.99  3.39
Marital satisfaction            17.72  3.32
Parental satisfaction           17.24  1.93

TABLE 2 Correlations of the Variables Used in the Present Study

Variable                  1   2     3     4      5      6

1. Continued attachment   --  .67*  -.03  -.01   -.03   -.01
   to mother
2. Continued attachment       --    -.04  -.05    .15    .01
   to father
3. Life satisfaction                --     .42*   .46*   .34*
4. Work satisfaction                      --      .15    .26*
5. Marital satisfaction                          --      .33*
6. Parental satisfaction                                --

*p < .01.

TABLE 3 Results of Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis for the
Criterion Variable of Life Satisfaction

Variable                 B     SE   [beta]  [R.sup.2]  [DELTA][R.sup.2]

Step 1
  Work satisfaction       .42  .12   .44    .19        .19
Step 2
  Marital satisfaction    .49  .12   .45    .39        .20
Step 3
  Parental satisfaction   .23  .20   .13    .41        .02
Step 4
  Continued attachment    .05  .11   .07    .43        .02
    to mother
  Continued attachment   -.12  .10  -.20    .43        .02
    to father

Variable                 [DELTA]F  p

Step 1
  Work satisfaction      12.47     .001*
Step 2
  Marital satisfaction   17.11     .000*
Step 3
  Parental satisfaction   1.29     .263
Step 4
  Continued attachment    1.02     .370
    to mother
  Continued attachment    1.02     .370
    to father

*p < .01.