Relationships among perceived stress, premenstrual symptomatology and spiritual well-being in women.Research demonstrates that psychological and physiological outcomes are impacted positively by spirituality. Yet, spirituality may also exacerbate the impact of stressors. In order to assess the relationships among spirituality, premenstrual premenstrual /pre·men·stru·al/ (pre-men´stroo-al) occurring before menstruation. pre·men·stru·al adj. Of or occurring in the period just before menstruation. symptomology (PMS (Pantone Matching System) A color matching system that has a unique number assigned to more than 500 different colors and shades. This standard for the printing industry has been built into many graphics and desktop publishing programs to ensure color accuracy. ) and stress in women, we performed the following survey of 145 females. Participants completed a measure of PMS symptoms, perceived stress and spiritual well-being spiritual well-being, n a sense of peace and contentment stemming from an individual's relationship with the spiritual aspects of life. . Our findings indicated that increases in spiritual well-being were positively related to PMS and stress endorsement. Furthermore, spiritual well-being served as a partial mediator between stress and PMS. As women who scored the highest on spirituality measures also had the highest PMS endorsement, women of Christian faith may benefit from heightened self-care practices surrounding stress management. ********** As of late, investigators studying the relationships among stress, health and well-being in women have come to include measures of spiritual well-being in their analyses (e.g., Daaleman, Cobb & Frey, 2001; Tanyi & Werner, 2003; Targ & Levine, 2002; Wenzel, Donnelly & Fowler, 2002). This shift away from a secular approach to studying health and well-being has been motivated in part by the high percentage of people that believe in God. According to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. the 2004 Gallup poll Gallup Poll Noun a sampling of the views of a representative cross section of the population, usually used to forecast voting [after G H Gallup, statistician] Gallup poll n → , researchers found that 90% of Americans reported believing in God (Gallup Organization, 2005). Given this widespread belief, it follows that the majority of Americans recognize that spirituality is influential. Therefore, to get a complete and accurate understanding of what it means to be a healthy person, one must include an assessment of those aspects of self that transcend what it means to be a physical being. This includes the spiritual or faith-based aspect of self, and that part of a person which provides a sense of meaning or ultimate purpose in life, which is the existential aspect of self. The importance of this multidimensional mul·ti·di·men·sion·al adj. Of, relating to, or having several dimensions. mul  ti·di·men approach to the study of
well-being was detailed by Craig W. Ellison as he developed the
Spiritual Well-Being Scale (Ellison, 1983). Including a measure of both
religious and existential well-being, the Sprititual Well-Being Scale
was introduced in an effort to provide researchers with a tool for
measuring aspects of self previously deemed too difficult to study
empirically. This methodological advancement has allowed researchers to
reveal much about the importance of faith/spirituality in the physical
and mental health of persons. Specifically, researchers have
demonstrated significant positive relationships between
faith/spirituality and cardiovascular health as well as outcomes of
cancer patients (Powell, Shahabi, & Thoresen, 2003), and that
faith/spirituality mediates the perception of stress (Maynard, Gorsuch,
& Bjork, 2001) as well as symptoms of depression and anxiety (Young,
Cashwell & Shcherbakova, 2000). Furthermore, in studies of
stress-related factors researchers have delineated de·lin·e·ate tr.v. de·lin·e·at·ed, de·lin·e·at·ing, de·lin·e·ates 1. To draw or trace the outline of; sketch out. 2. To represent pictorially; depict. 3. specific outcomes resulting from various stressors. Strawbridge, Shema, Cohen cohen or kohen (Hebrew: “priest”) Jewish priest descended from Zadok (a descendant of Aaron), priest at the First Temple of Jerusalem. The biblical priesthood was hereditary and male. , Roberts and Kaplan (1998) found that religiosity re·li·gi·os·i·ty n. 1. The quality of being religious. 2. Excessive or affected piety. Noun 1. religiosity - exaggerated or affected piety and religious zeal religiousism, pietism, religionism (defined as occurrence of prayer and church attendance as well as the subjective importance of faith based beliefs) buffered associations between stressors not specifically dependent on family, such as neighborhood problems, financial problems, and illness with depression. These investigators also found that religiosity exacerbated the effect of family stressors such as marital problems, care giving and child-related problems on depression. Findings such as these which indicate that faith/spirituality can exacerbate negative aspects of well-being raises methodological questions as generally, research yields a positive relationship between religiosity/spirituality and mental health (for review see Hackney Hackney, inner borough (1991 pop. 164,200) of Greater London, SE England, on the Lea River. Clothing manufacture (in Hackney) and printing and furniture making (in Shoreditch) are the borough's chief industries. London's first theater was built in Shoreditch (c.1575). & Sanders, 2003). Studies performed to answer these questions have demonstrated that the positive relationship depends greatly on the religious or spiritual dimension being measured. For instance, spiritual dimensions such as church attendance positively correlate with subjective well-being, less depression, and less behavioral risk factors (Mitchell & Weathcrly, 2000; Plante & Sherman, 2001). When religious/spiritual factors such as religious strain or negative religious coping religious coping, n means of dealing with stress (which may be a consequence of illness) that are religious. These include prayer, congregational support, pastoral care, and religious faith. are measured, researchers found a negative relationship with mental health, that is, more stress and depression are reported. In a study where religiously devout college students participated in an assessment of emotional adjustment, Richards (1991) found that students who reported that they were religiously devout were not found to be more depressed or to have less purpose and meaning in life than nontraditionally religious students. However, there is no evidence provided that suggests being religious improves one's mental health, or whether religious students experienced more purpose and meaning in life than non-religious students. Schumaker (1992) argued that the ritualistic rit·u·al·is·tic adj. 1. Relating to ritual or ritualism. 2. Advocating or practicing ritual. rit aspect of religion offers benefits to one's mental health. Yet it is possible that the responsibilities that come with being a person of faith could introduce stress in one's life. If stress management coping is not already practiced, some may experience an increase in stress-related health problems. This may, in part, explain the negative findings relating spirituality and mental health in women reported by Helm, Berecz and Nelson (2001). These researchers reported that as adherence to religious fundamentalism increased, a significant decrease in the degree of one's sense of pride was evident. Yet, the picture is not clear as Bridges and Spilka (1992) reported that college women who are religiously active are less anxiety prone than those that are not religiously active. Taken together, the findings relating spirituality and well-being in women generate more questions than provide answers. An aspect of women's health Women's Health Definition Women's health is the effect of gender on disease and health that encompasses a broad range of biological and psychosocial issues. with profound religious implication that has not been directly addressed in the literature is the cluster of physical and mental changes related to the women's reproductive cycle reproductive cycle n. The cycle of physiological changes that begins with conception and extends through gestation and parturition. known as premenstrual syndrome premenstrual syndrome (PMS), any of various symptoms experienced by women of childbearing age in the days immediately preceding menstruation. It is most common in women in their twenties and thirties. (PMS). Simoni & Ortiz (2003) found that spirituality induced stress especially when it was associated with fatalistic fa·tal·ism n. 1. The doctrine that all events are predetermined by fate and are therefore unalterable. 2. Acceptance of the belief that all events are predetermined and inevitable. reinterpretation re·in·ter·pret tr.v. re·in·ter·pret·ed, re·in·ter·pret·ing, re·in·ter·prets To interpret again or anew. re of illness as a punishment for prior misdeeds. Monthly menstruation menstruation, periodic flow of blood and cells from the lining of the uterus in humans and most other primates, occurring about every 28 days in women. Menstruation commences at puberty (usually between age 10 and 17). and the PMS symptom cluster immediately preceding this event may certainly fall under this category. Christian women who attend regular religious services in which scripture is read and discussed, may be reminded that menstruation is a result of living in a fallen world (Genesis 3:16, New International Version Study Bible History of the English Bible Overview Old English translations Lindisfarne Gospels Middle English translations Wyclif's Bible Early Modern English translations Tyndale's Bible Coverdale's Bible Matthew's Bible Taverner's Bible Great Bible ). Even sermons which address the healing power of Jesus can be influenced by negative images for women as with story of the hemorrhaging woman in Mark 5:25-34 (New International Version Study Bible). It may be that women of faith may experience more stress according to the theory proposed by Simoni and Oritz (2003). Hughes (2004) writes of a tendency in Western cultures to view sickness, suffering and negative life-events as the will of God, as a result of His anger or a punishment. Here again, for women of faith, the negativity and even bothersome act of menstruation may spark a feeling of having done wrong. A better understanding here requires direct assessment of stress, well-being and premenstrual symptomatology symptomatology /symp·to·ma·tol·o·gy/ (simp?to-mah-tol´ah-je) 1. the branch of medicine dealing with symptoms. 2. the combined symptoms of a disease. symp·to·ma·tol·o·gy n. in women. Therefore, our purpose was to investigate the relationships among perceived stress, PMS and spiritual well-being in women. Our aim was to assess whether women who feel a strong sense of spiritual well-being tended to feel less stress and fewer premenstrual symptoms, or conversely, if women who feel a strong sense of spiritual well-being feel more stress and worse premenstrual symptoms. METHOD Participants Following approval from the University Institutional Review Board (IRB IRB See: Industrial Revenue Bond ), our research team recruited a convenience sample of 145 women from several courses taught throughout the University to participate in our survey. Measures (1) Demographic Questionnaire. We generated a demographic questionnaire which assessed participant age, gender and religious affiliation. (2) Perceived Stress. Each participant completed the Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen, Kamarack & Mermelstein, 1983). This ten-item questionnaire assessed an individual's appraisal of stress over the previous month. Participants rated how often they experience unpredictable situations, and/or feel a lack of control over or inadequate time to complete things important to them on a 5-point Likert scale Likert scale A subjective scoring system that allows a person being surveyed to quantify likes and preferences on a 5-point scale, with 1 being the least important, relevant, interesting, most ho-hum, or other, and 5 being most excellent, yeehah important, etc which ranges from (0) "never felt or thought that way" to (4) "very often felt or thought that way". We obtained a perceived stress summary score by reverse-scoring the four positively stated items and calculating a sum across all items. This provided a score range from 0 to 40. Cohen and Williamson (1988) reported that in a U.S. sample of 2,387 individuals, the mean score for women 18-29 years was 14.2 [+ or -] 6.2 and the internal consistency In statistics and research, internal consistency is a measure based on the correlations between different items on the same test (or the same subscale on a larger test). It measures whether several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce similar scores. .78 with construct validity construct validity, n the degree to which an experimentally-determined definition matches the theoretical definition. ranging from .26 to .39. (3) Premenstrual Symptomatolgy (PMS). Each participant completed the shortened premenstrual assessment form (SPAF SPAF Vascular disease A clinical trial–Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation–comparing low-dose aspirin vs anticoagulation with warfarin in preventing stroke and systemic embolism–the 1º events in 150 Pts with A Fib. ) as an indicator of PMS. The SPAF (Allen, McBride & Pirie, 1991) measures magnitude of premenstrual symptoms. This questionnaire provides a list of symptoms associated with the premenstrual phase of the menstrual cycle menstrual cycle n. The recurring cycle of physiological changes in the uterus, ovaries, and other sexual structures that occur from the beginning of one menstrual period through the beginning of the next. . Participants respond to the listed symptom by indicating a change in severity ranging from (1) "not present at all or no change from the usual level" to (6) "extreme change". To score this questionnaire we calculated an overall sum ranging from 10-60. This 10-item questionnaire also gives rise to three subscales, including measures of pain, affect and water retention. Possible scores on these subscales include 3-18 points for pain, 4-24 points for affect and 3-18 for water retention. Allen, et al. generated the SPAF from the original 95-item Premenstrual Assessment Form developed by Halbreich, Endicott, Schacht, and Nee (1982). Allen, et al. demonstrated that the SPAF provides the same assessment of premenstrual symptomatology as the original assessment tool, as shown through its equally strong reliability (test-retest coefficient range from .6 to .7) and validity (internal consistency coefficient of .95). In their study of 217 regularly cycling women, these researchers reported a score range from 10-60 with an approximate mean of 30. (4) Spiritual Well-Being. Participants completed the Ellison Spiritual Well-Being scale (Ellison, 1983). By responding to a 6-point Likert scale ranging from (1) "strongly disagree" to (6) "strongly agree", participants provided a measure of both existential and religious well-being. Of the twenty items which make up this scale, 10 items measure existential well-being and 10 items religious well-being. The existential component has two combined sub-factors related to life direction and satisfaction. Religious well-being is assessed by participant agreement ratings to items such as "I believe that God loves me and cares about me" and "I don't get much personal strength and support from my God." To score this scale, we reverse scored the negatively worded items and generated an overall sum with higher scores representing higher spiritual well-being. Next, we summed the odd-numbered items as a measure of religious well-being and the even numbered items as a measure of existential well-being. Possible scores on the Spiritual Well-Being Scale range from 20 to 120 with half (10-60) measuring religious well-being and the other half measuring existential well-being. In a sample of 117 college students from the University of Idaho The university was formed by the territorial legislature of Idaho on January 30, 1889, and opened its doors on October 3, 1892 with an initial class of 40 students. The first graduating class in 1896 contained two men and two women. , Bufford, Paloutzian and Ellison (1991) reported mean scores for the 50 students classifying themselves as evangelical Christians This is a list of people who are notable due to their influence on the popularity or development of evangelical Christianity or for their professed Evangelicalism. Historical
 ·liˑ·di·tē),n for this tool with predicted correlations to other scales with similar assessment factors (see Bufford et al. for details). Procedure After receiving permission from the instructor, we made an announcement indicating our interest in having women complete a series of questionnaires about their faith and health. We read aloud a brief summary of our purpose along with the expected length of time it would take to complete the survey. After addressing questions we left packets containing the questionnaires along with an IRB approved consent in the classroom for students to pick up. Participants were allowed to complete the surveys on their own time and with complete privacy. Participants returned the completed surveys to a collection box placed in their classroom which allowed for complete anonymity. Research team members collected the returned packets the next day the class met. RESULTS The majority of the participants identified themselves as Caucasian (93%) between 18 and 21 years of age (92%). Ninety four participants identified themselves as a non-denominational Christian (65%), 24 identified as Presbyterian (17%), ten as Methodist (7%), six as Lutheran (4%), and eight as Roman Catholic (5%). Three participants (2%) failed to complete the religious affiliation portion of the demographic questionnaire. All 145 participants completed all portions of the remaining scales except for two participants, who chose not to complete the Premenstrual Assessment Form. Means, standard deviations In statistics, the average amount a number varies from the average number in a series of numbers. (statistics) standard deviation - (SD) A measure of the range of values in a set of numbers. and possible score ranges for PMS, stress and spiritual well-being are summarized in Table 1. As can be seen, change in affect was the most highly endorsed premenstrual symptom. Correlation coefficients Correlation Coefficient A measure that determines the degree to which two variable's movements are associated. The correlation coefficient is calculated as: were computed among perceived stress, PMS and spiritual well-being. As shown in Table 2, all of the correlations were significant once the Bonferroni correction In statistics, the Bonferroni correction states that if an experimenter is testing n independent hypotheses on a set of data, then the statistical significance level that should be used for each hypothesis separately is 1/n for Type I error inflation was applied and a p value of .005 used for determining statistical significance. Furthermore, all of the correlations were in the positive direction indicating that not only is an increase in stress related to an increase in PMS, so too is it related to an increase in religious, existential, and overall spiritual well-being reports. [FIGURE 1A OMITTED] [FIGURE 1B OMITTED] To determine if spiritual well-being mediated the relationship between stress and PMS, three simultaneous multiple regression Multiple regression The estimated relationship between a dependent variable and more than one explanatory variable. analyses were performed in accordance with the Baron and Kenney method (1986). The first equation combined stress as the independent variable with PMS as the dependent variable. The second equation combined spiritual well-being (the suspected mediator) as the independent variable and PMS as the dependent variable. The final equation included both stress and spiritual well-being as predictors of PMS. The model summarizing these relationships is depicted in Figure la. As can be seen in Table 3, stress predicted premenstrual symptomatology in all three regression analyses. Yet a drop to c' = .331 from c = .449 was also observed. Given this, a direct test of the mediation model was performed using the Sobel test. The mediation model along with path coefficients for this study is depicted in Figure 1b. Utilizing the equation: z' = a * b/ sqrt([a.sup.2] * [s.sub.b.sup.2] + [b.sup.2] * [s.sub.a.sup.2]), analyses revealed a z value of 2.207 with a 95% confidence interval confidence interval, n a statistical device used to determine the range within which an acceptable datum would fall. Confidence intervals are usually expressed in percentages, typically 95% or 99%. of .013 to .222. As zero was not in the interval, results are statistically significant. Use of an online interactive calculation tool revealed a p value of .027 (Preacher & Leonardelli, 2003). Yet it is important to point out that, as shown in Table 3, the adjusted effect of stress on PMS is significant with only 26.2% of the effect of stress on PMS being due to the mediator, spiritual well-being (proportion mediated = ab / c). Collectively these findings suggest that spiritual well-being does not completely mediate the relationship between stress and premenstrual symptomatology but rather serves as a partial mediator. DISCUSSION Our purpose was to determine whether women who felt a strong sense of spiritual well-being tended to feel less stress and fewer premenstrual symptoms than women with lesser spiritual well-being, or conversely, if women who felt a strong sense of spiritual well-being felt more stress and worse premenstrual symptoms. Our results revealed a significant positive relationship among all variables assessed. Specifically, women reporting the highest levels of spiritual, existential and religious well-being also reported the highest levels of stress and the most severe premenstrual symptoms. Furthermore, mediation analysis revealed spiritual well-being as a partial mediator between stress and premenstrual symptomatolgy. These findings are striking in light of recent reports suggesting a supportive or enhancing effect of spiritual well-being on health-related measures (Bridges & Spilka, 1992; Hackney & Saunders, 2003). One plausible explanation for these results lies in the very nature of Christian faith for women worldwide. Women of faith are taught from a young age that they will be reminded monthly of the gift God has given them in their ability to bare a child. Yet the joy of that gift is tempered by the simultaneous cyclical punishment that a women lives out in a fallen world; that punishment being menstruation. Being more in tune with this, when asked to recall menstrual symptoms and perceived stress, a woman of faith may provide amplified responses rather than blunted responses. If one looks to history, being a person of faith has provided a lifestyle challenge. These challenges were likely stressful for believers. One could argue then that being a person of faith adds a degree of stress to one's life as does many forms of responsibility. This is not a negative thing per se, but rather one that requires recognition and life adjustment in order to accommodate this added responsibility. As an individual with a high powered and time demanding career knows to engage in self-care behaviors aimed at managing stress levels, so too should a women of Christian faith. While this was not a prospective study, the direction of the relationship between these variables may be inferred from the nature of the wording of the Spiritual Well-Being scale. Participants rated their feelings toward and satisfaction with their faith and their lives. They are not asked about extrinsic EVIDENCE, EXTRINSIC. External evidence, or that which is not contained in the body of an agreement, contract, and the like. 2. It is a general rule that extrinsic evidence cannot be admitted to contradict, explain, vary or change the terms of a contract or of a faith measures such as the amount of time spent in prayer. It may be that increases in stress or premenstrual symptomatology lead to increases in extrinsic measures of faith, however in this study of spiritual well-being, women rated their symptoms and stress as poorer the more satisfied and positive they felt about their spirituality. Thus, these findings suggest that women are associating their faith with these psychophysiological aspects of self in such a way that would suggest that faith or spiritual well-being does not improve these outcomes but rather calls a person of faith to greater self care. It is important to note that the women in this study were primarily of traditional college age (i.e., 18-21 years of age). It is possible that the level of spiritual maturation plays a role in these findings. A study in which lifespan stage and perception of spiritual development are also considered in the analyses would be helpful in teasing out this concern. REFERENCES Allen, S. S., McBride, C. M. & Pirie, P. L. (1991). The shortened premenstrual assessment form. Journal of Reproductive Medicine, 36(11), 769-772. Baron, R. M. & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology The Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (often referred to as JPSP) is a monthly psychology journal of the American Psychological Association. It is considered one of the top journals in the fields of social and personality psychology. , 51(6), 1173-1182. Bridges, R. & Spilka, B. (1992). Religion and the mental health of women. In J. Schumaker (Ed.), Religion and mental health (pp. 43-53). London: Oxford University Press. Bufford, R. K., Paloutzian, R. F. & Ellison, C. W. (1991). Norms for the Spiritual Well-Being Scale. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 19(1), 56-70. Cohen, S., Kamarack, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior In biology, psychology and sociology social behavior is behavior directed towards, or taking place between, members of the same species. Behavior such as predation which involves members of different species is not social. , 24(4), 385-396. Cohen, S. & Williamson, G. (1988). Perceived stress in a probability sample of the United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. . In Spacapan, S. and Oskamp. S. (Eds.), The Social Psychology of Health. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publishers. Daaleman, T. P., Cobb, A. K., & Frey, B. B. (2001). Spirituality and well-being: An exploratory study of the patient perspective. Social Science and Medicine, 53(11), 1503-1511. Ellison, C. W. (1983). Spiritual well-being: Conceptualization con·cep·tu·al·ize v. con·cep·tu·al·ized, con·cep·tu·al·iz·ing, con·cep·tu·al·iz·es v.tr. To form a concept or concepts of, and especially to interpret in a conceptual way: and measurement. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 11(4), 330-340. The Gallup Organization (2005). Gallup poll social series: Values and beliefs. Retrieved October 30, 2005, from: http://brain.gallup.com/documents/questionnaire.aspx?STUDY=P0405016 Hackney, C. H. & Sanders, G. S. (2003). Religiosity and mental health: A meta-analysis of recent studies. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 42(1), 43-55. Halbreich, U., Endicott, J., Schacht, S. & Nee, J (1982). The diversity of premenstrual changes as reflected in the premenstrual assessment form. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 65(1), 46-65. Helm, H. W., Jr., Berecz, J. M., & Nelson, E. A. (2001). Religious fundamentalism and gender differences. Pastoral Psychology, 50(1), 25-37. Hughes, A. (2004). Ancestral versus original sin original sin, in Christian theology, the sin of Adam, by which all humankind fell from divine grace. Saint Augustine was the fundamental theologian in the formulation of this doctrine, which states that the essentially graceless nature of humanity requires redemption : An overview with implications for psychotherapy psychotherapy, treatment of mental and emotional disorders using psychological methods. Psychotherapy, thus, does not include physiological interventions, such as drug therapy or electroconvulsive therapy, although it may be used in combination with such methods. . Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 23(3), 271-277. Maynard, E. A., Gorsuch, R. L., & Bjorck, J. P. (2001). Religious coping style, concept of God, and personal religious variables in threat, loss, and challenge situations. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 40(1), 65-74. Mitchell, J. & Weatherly, D. (2000). Beyond church attendance: Religiosity and mental health among rural older adults. Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology gerontology: see geriatrics. , 15(1), 37-54. Plante, T. G. & Sherman, A. C. (2001). Faith and health: Psychological perspectives. New York New York, state, United States New York, Middle Atlantic state of the United States. It is bordered by Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Atlantic Ocean (E), New Jersey and Pennsylvania (S), Lakes Erie and Ontario and the Canadian province of , NY, US: Guilford Press. Powell, L. H., Shahabi, L., & Thoresen, C. E. (2003). Religion and spirituality: Linkages to physical health. American Psychologist The American Psychologist is the official journal of the American Psychological Association. It contains archival documents and articles covering current issues in psychology, the science and practice of psychology, and psychology's contribution to public policy. , 58(1), 36-52. Preacher, K. J. & Leonardelli, G. J. (2003). Calculation for the Sobel test: An interactive calculation tool for mediation tests. Retrieved March 5, 2004 from: http://www.unc.edu/~prcacher/sobel/sobel.htm Richards, P. S. (1991). Religious devoutness in college students: Relations with emotional adjustment and psychological separation from parents. Journal of Counseling Psychology Counseling psychology as a psychological specialty facilitates personal and interpersonal functioning across the life span with a focus on emotional, social, vocational, educational, health-related, developmental, and organizational concerns. , 38(2), 189-196. Schumaker, J. F. (1992). Mental heath consequences of irreligion ir·re·li·gion n. Hostility or indifference to religion. Noun 1. irreligion - the quality of not being devout irreligiousness impiety, impiousness - unrighteousness by virtue of lacking respect for a god . In J. Schumaker (Ed.), Religion and mental health (pp. 54-69). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Simoni, J. M., & Oritz, M. S. (2003). Meditational models of spirituality and depressive de·pres·sive adj. 1. Tending to depress or lower. 2. Depressing; gloomy. 3. Of or relating to psychological depression. n. A person suffering from psychological depression. symptomatology among HIV-positive Puerto Rican Puer·to Ri·co Abbr. PR or P.R. A self-governing island commonwealth of the United States in the Caribbean Sea east of Hispaniola. women. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 9(1), 3-15. Strawbridgc, W. J., Shcma, S. J., Cohen, R. D., Roberts, R. E., & Kaplan, G. A. (1998). Religiosity buffers effects of some stressors on depression but exacerbates others. Journal of Gerontology: Social Sciences, 53B(3), S118-S126. Tanyi, R. A., & Werner, J. S. (2003). Adjustment, spirituality, and health in women on hemodialysis hemodialysis /he·mo·di·al·y·sis/ (-di-al´i-sis) removal of certain elements from the blood by virtue of the difference in rates of their diffusion through a semipermeable membrane while being circulated outside the body; the process . Clinical Nursing Research, 12(3), 229-245. Targ, E. F., & Levine, E. G. (2002). The efficacy of a mind-body-spirit group for women with breast cancer: A randomized controlled trial A randomized controlled trial (RCT) is a scientific procedure most commonly used in testing medicines or medical procedures. RCTs are considered the most reliable form of scientific evidence because it eliminates all forms of spurious causality. . General Hospital Psychiatry, 24(4), 238-248. Wenzel, L. B., Donnelly, J. P., & Fowler, J. M. (2002). Resilience, reflection and residual stress Residual stresses are stresses that remain after the original cause of the stresses (external forces, heat gradient) has been removed. They remain along a cross section of the component, even without the external cause. in ovarian cancer ovarian cancer Malignant tumour of the ovaries. Risk factors include early age of first menstruation (before age 12), late onset of menopause (after age 52), absence of pregnancy, presence of specific genetic mutations, use of fertility drugs, and personal history of breast survivorship survivorship n. the right to receive full title or ownership due to having survived another person. Survivorship is particularly applied to persons owning real property or other assets, such as bank accounts or stocks, in "joint tenancy. : A gynecologic oncology Gynecologic oncology is a specialized field of medicine that focuses only on cancers of the female reproductive system, notably ovarian cancer, cervical cancer, endometrial cancer and vulvar cancer. study. Psycho-Oncology, 11(2), Special issue: Survivorship, 142-153. Young, J. S., Cashwell, C. S., & Shcherbakova J. (2000). The moderating relationship of spirituality on negative life events and psychological adjustment. Counseling and Values, 45(1), 49-57. AUTHORS LUSTYK, M. KATHLEEN B. Address: Seattle Pacific University External links
• • , 3307 Third Ave. West, Seattle, WA 98119. Title: Professor of Psychology. Degree: PhD. BEAM, CHRISTOPHER R. Address: New York University New York University, mainly in New York City; coeducational; chartered 1831, opened 1832 as the Univ. of the City of New York, renamed 1896. It comprises 13 schools and colleges, maintaining 4 main centers (including the Medical Center) in the city, as well as the , 6 Washington Place Washington Place is a Greek Revival home in the Capital District in Honolulu, Hawaiʻi and was formerly the official residence of the Governor of Hawaiʻi. , New York, NY 10003. Title: Graduate Assistant. Degree: BA. MILLER, ANDREA C. Address: Lustyk Psychophysiology psychophysiology /psy·cho·phys·i·ol·o·gy/ (-fiz?e-ol´ah-je) physiologic psychology. psy·cho·phys·i·ol·o·gy n. The study of correlations between the mind, behavior, and bodily mechanisms. Lab, Seattle Pacific University, 611 W. Emerson St., Seattle, WA 98119. Title: Research Assistant. Degree: BS. OLSON, KAREN C. Address: Lustyk Psychophysiology Laboratory, Seattle Pacific University, Seattle, WA 98119. Title: Graduate Assistant. Degree: MA M. KATHLEEN B. LUSTYK Seattle Pacific University CHRISTOPHER R. BEAM New York University ANDREA C. MILLER and KAREN C. OLSON Seattle Pacific University Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to: M. Kathleen B. Lustyk, Ph.D., Professor of Psychology, School of Psychology, Family and Community, Suite 107, Seattle Pacific University, 3307 Third Ave. West, Seattle, WA 98119, Phone: 206-281-2893, Fax: 206-281-2695, klustyk@spu.edu
TABLE 1 Means, Standard Deviations and Possible Score Ranges for PMS,
Spiritual Well-Being and Perceived Stress.
Measure Possible Score Range Calculated Mean (SD)
Premenstrual Symptomatology
Summary Score 10-60 26.7 (9.3)
Pain 3-18 7.8 (3.4)
Affect 4-24 11.4 (4.2)
Water Retention 3-18 7.5 (3.5)
Spiritual Well-Being
Summary Score 20-120 39.8 (14.5)
Religious Well-Being 10-60 18.8 (10.3)
Existential Well-Being 10-60 20.9 (6.5)
Perceived Stress
Summary Score 0-40 17.3 (6.7)
TABLE 2 Correlations among PMS, perceived stress, and spiritual well-
being (N = 145).
Religious Spiritual
Well-being (WB) PMS Stress WB
PMS .25*
Stress .29* .33*
Spiritual WB .92* .29* .43*
Existential WB .47* .26* .50* .78*
*p < .005
TABLE 3 Mediation Analyses of Perceived Stress and PMS with Spiritual
Well-Being as the Mediator.
Regression (DV) B p [R.sup.2] Adj. [R.sup.2]
Regression 1 (PMS)
F(1, 145) = 16.54, p < .0001
Stress .45 .0001 .10 .10
Regression 2 (Spiritual Well-
Being)
F(1, 145) = 29.48, p < .0001
Stress .92 .0001 .17 .16
Regression 3 (PMS)
F(2, 145) = 11.42, p < .0001
Stress .33 .006
Spiritual Well-Being .13 .018
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