Relating academic data from the elementary grades to state test results in high school: implications for school improvement through professional development.Abstract. End-of-year marks and achievement test results in intermediate grade math and reading were linked to high-stakes test results at the secondary level. The results suggest that analysis of marks and test scores would alert educators to students who may be at-risk. This study is an example of the scientific approach to school improvement advocated by the No Child Left Behind Act The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (Public Law 107-110), commonly known as NCLB (IPA: /ˈnɪkəlbiː/), is a United States federal law that was passed in the House of Representatives on May 23, 2001 . The discussion included professional development needed by teachers, principals, and school psychologists This list includes notable psychologists and contributors to psychology, some of whom may not have thought of themselves primarily as psychologists but are included here because of their important contributions to the discipline. in order to make a research-based realignment re·a·lign tr.v. re·a·ligned, re·a·lign·ing, re·a·ligns 1. To put back into proper order or alignment. 2. To make new groupings of or working arrangements between. of the curriculum and adjustments to the instructional program. ********** The seminal seminal /sem·i·nal/ (sem´i-n'l) pertaining to semen or to a seed. sem·i·nal adj. Of, relating to, containing, or conveying semen or seed. study of the status of schools in the now classic 1983 A Nation at Risk outlined the need for improvement. Among the many results and suggestions of that study were the needs to increase achievement test results, to improve graduation Graduation is the action of receiving or conferring an academic degree or the associated ceremony. The date of event is often called degree day. The event itself is also called commencement, convocation or invocation. rates, and to reduce absenteeism ab·sen·tee·ism n. 1. Habitual failure to appear, especially for work or other regular duty. 2. The rate of occurrence of habitual absence from work or duty. . The Koret Task Force The Koret Task Force on K–12 Education The Hoover Institution’s Koret Task Force on K–12 Education is a group of senior education scholars brought together by the Hoover Institution, Stanford University, who work collectively as well as individually on on K-12 Education (2003) reviewed the goals of A Nation at Risk and attempted to clarify why so much change was made, yet so little improvement was seen. They found that little attention was paid to K-8 grades, because the assumption was that reasonable levels of basic skills were being provided. However, they demonstrated that children were not acquiring the essential knowledge needed in preparation for high school studies. Furthermore, they supported the use of accurate measures to evaluate the value added Value Added The enhancement a company gives its product or service before offering the product to customers. Notes: This can either increase the products price or value. by each school. Schools should be rewarded for evidence of improvement, or closed or reconstituted if they fail to show value added. The Koret Task Force advocated for accountability and that complete information about the schools should be readily and conveniently available. Thus, data, reports, forms, and formats should enable easy comparisons for full transparency (1) The quality of being able to see through a material. The terms transparency and translucency are often used synonymously; however, transparent would technically mean "seeing through clear glass," while translucent would mean "seeing through frosted glass." See alpha blending. of school information. That suggests that test results, graduation rates, and attendance must be available, accessible, and simple to interpret. For two decades, states have been requiring proficiency testing proficiency test n → prueba de capacitación at various grade levels as part of reporting complete information on school performance and developing improvement plans (Airasian, 1987). The focus on national and state testing of student achievement generally serves three functions (Education Commission of the States The Education Commission of the States (ECS) was founded as a result of the creation of the Compact for Education, supported by all 50 states and approved by Congress in 1965. The original idea of establishing an interstate compact on education and creating an operational arm to follow up , 2002). First, it provides a vehicle to inform the public about the effectiveness of schools. Second, it qualifies districts for rewards and triggers state intervention A procedure used in a lawsuit by which the court allows a third person who was not originally a party to the suit to become a party, by joining with either the plaintiff or the defendant. in the educational program. Third, districts and schools use test results as part of accreditation accreditation, n a process of formal recognition of a school or institution attesting to the required ability and performance in an area of education, training, or practice. and school improvement processes. Failure-to-graduate and attendance are other measures of school effectiveness (Rumberger, 1987). The ability to use academic measures in early grades to predict failure in later grades is a logical use of student data. Anticipating which students may have difficulty with later tests, graduation, and attendance would enable prevention and early remediation (e.g., Shapiro, 1988). For example, Lloyd (1978) reported that low teacher grades and weak reading achievement in 3rd grade were related to dropping out of high school. Gleason and Dynarski (2002) reported that low grades and poor test score performance are important indicators of poor academic work in high school. Poor academic work was the best predictor of identifying who dropped out. Barrington and Hendricks (1989) found that failing grades, low achievement test performance, and low attendance separated dropouts from graduates. Dropout (1) On magnetic media, a bit that has lost its strength due to a surface defect or recording malfunction. If the bit is in an audio or video file, it might be detected by the error correction circuitry and either corrected or not, but if not, it is often not noticed by the human was associated with low grades and test scores as early as 3rd grade. They argued that if prevention of dropout (and by congruence con·gru·ence n. 1. a. Agreement, harmony, conformity, or correspondence. b. An instance of this: "What an extraordinary congruence of genius and era" , academic failure) is to be effective, early identification is necessary. They suggested that over-identifying students who appear at risk of later academic failure is the better strategy in preventing students from failing to graduate. In addition to relating test results to failure to graduate high school, monitoring test performance may have other significant school improvement benefits. The Consortium of Chicago School Chicago School Group of architects and engineers who in the 1890s exploited the twin developments of structural steel framing and the electrified elevator, paving the way for the ubiquitous modern-day skyscraper. Research (cited in Roderick, Bryk, Jacob Jacob (jā`kəb), in the Bible, ancestor of the Hebrews, the younger of Isaac and Rebecca's twin sons; the older was Esau. In exchange for a bowl of lentil soup, Jacob obtained Esau's birthright and, with his mother's help, received the blessing , Easton, & Allensworthy, 1999) studied the patterns of annual testing data. They tracked multiple cohorts of students and justified a new policy that ended social promotion in the elementary grades. Of even greater importance is the work done to align align (  līn),v to move the teeth into their proper positions to conform to the line of occlusion. the written, the taught, and the tested curricula to help teachers develop classroom activities that will interest students and enable success on highstakes tests (Glatthorn, 1999). The value of curriculum alignment rests more with the process of involving teachers through professional development activities to review test items, correlate to curriculum strands, and develop new and blended units, than with developing test preparation activities (Jacobs, 1997; McGehee & Griffith, 2001). Nothing to date does more to raise the stakes of tests, other academic measures, graduation, and attendance than the federal legislation known as the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB NCLB No Child Left Behind (US education initiative) ), PL 107-11 (Congressional Record A daily publication of the federal government that details the legislative proceedings of Congress. The Congressional Record began in 1873 and, in 1947, a feature called The Daily Digest was added to briefly highlight the daily legislative activities of each House, , 2002). All schools and districts must make Adequate Yearly Progress Adequate Yearly Progress, or AYP, is a measurement defined by the United States federal No Child Left Behind Act that allows the U.S. Department of Education to determine how every public school and school district in the country is performing academically. (AYP AYP Adequate Yearly Progress (National Assessment of Educational Progress) AYP Anarchist Yellow Pages AYP American Youth Philharmonic ) towards a 12-year goal for all students to be at or above proficiency pro·fi·cien·cy n. pl. pro·fi·cien·cies The state or quality of being proficient; competence. Noun 1. proficiency - the quality of having great facility and competence in reading, language arts language arts pl.n. The subjects, including reading, spelling, and composition, aimed at developing reading and writing skills, usually taught in elementary and secondary school. , mathematics and science. The primary measures of AYP are state tests, which are aligned with state curriculum to reflect achievement of the basic competencies of public education. Two additional measures must be included: high school graduation rate and attendance. The mandate is to reduce the number of poorly prepared students, based upon objective, scientific evidence. NCLB requires the use of research-based strategies and professional development for teachers to make school improvements. The comprehensive definition of scientifically based research Scientifically based research or SBR is the required standard in professional development and the foundation of academic instruction under the guidelines of No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB).[1] References 1. involves systematic procedures to obtain reliable and valid knowledge relevant to educational activities and programs (Congressional Record, 2002). The definition specifies research design, rigorous data analyses, and hypothesis testing hypothesis testing In statistics, a method for testing how accurately a mathematical model based on one set of data predicts the nature of other data sets generated by the same process. to apply research findings to schools. Scientific evidence from single study research is informative, but rarely decisive. Instead, scientific knowledge emerges as a community of researchers evaluate school data over time. Specifically, collaborative teacher investigation of test results should be followed by curriculum alignment and development of improved learning units (McGehee & Griffith, 2001). Non-experimental studies (i.e., those not expressly designed to demonstrate cause-and-effect) provide useful scientific evidence about conditions of student success and potential targets for school improvement (Whitely, Weinshenker, Seelig, & Schneider, 2002). Using test results and other academic indicators to target students at risk would enable prevention as well as early remediation (Shapiro, 1988). Identifying elementary grade data and relating it to performance later in a student's career might provide a means to predict student failure (e.g., Hartman, 1989; Simner & Barnes, 1991). Furthermore, it would increase the amount of time to plan reform strategies to improve student learning. It would demonstrate the use of research-based evidence necessary for decision making in schools (Creighton, 2001; Schmoker, 1996; Whitely et al., 2002) and mandated for "scientifically based research" to build intervention programming (Congressional Record, 2002). The increasing demands for accountability strategies and procedures require the use of research methods, data analysis, and teacher action research. The variables for identification should be easily and objectively measured (Barrington & Hendricks, 1989), like those from student cumulative folders. Now more than ever, principals and teachers must rely more regularly and more thoroughly on student data to make decisions. They must be familiar with the sources of student data and simple techniques to analyze the data. One way to address this need is to design action research, using familiar student data (rather than creating more data), to study the prevention of failure by better understanding what is measured on state tests and how to align the curriculum to the tested standards. The thrust of the present investigation was to identify familiar and commonly available elementary school elementary school: see school. data and compare them to mandated measures of academic progress under NCLB. Then, the author offers some suggestions for staff development strategies. Two specific research questions were developed: 1) What familiar academic measures might alert principals and teachers to students' risk of failure on state tests? 2) How well do elementary students' academic measures compare with their state high school test performance? Method A successful group of high school test takers and an unsuccessful group of test takers were compared against academic measures from their elementary grades. A low test-success group contained those students who had repeatedly done poorly on the 9th-grade state test. The high test-success group were successful on their first attempt of the state 9th-grade test. The group comparisons were based upon data from their cumulative folders. Participation in reading intervention (Title I), percent of high and low teacher marks, and average percentiles on standardized standardized pertaining to data that have been submitted to standardization procedures. standardized morbidity rate see morbidity rate. standardized mortality rate see mortality rate. achievement tests were readily available and are commonly used in studies of predicting school failure (Barrington & Hendricks, 1989; Gleason & Dynarski, 2002; Hartman, 1989; Jimerson, Egeland, Sroufe, & Carlson, 2000; Rumberger, 1987). Setting Oaklawn City Schools (a pseudonym pseudonym (s  `dənĭm) [Gr.,=false name], name assumed, particularly by writers, to conceal identity. A writer's pseudonym is also referred to as a nom de plume (pen name). ), located in north central Ohio,
agreed to participate as part of a district-wide school improvement
plan. The district has approximately 4,000 students and 400 employees.
Ninety-six percent of the students were white and about 11 percent have
a disabling dis·a·ble tr.v. dis·a·bled, dis·a·bling, dis·a·bles 1. To deprive of capability or effectiveness, especially to impair the physical abilities of. 2. Law To render legally disqualified. condition. Per-pupil expenditure was approximately $5,700. There is one high school (grades 9 to 12), one middle school (grades 7 and 8), and seven elementary schools. This was a rather typical small-city school district in the mid-western United States United States, officially United States of America, republic (2005 est. pop. 295,734,000), 3,539,227 sq mi (9,166,598 sq km), North America. The United States is the world's third largest country in population and the fourth largest country in area. . Participants Two groups of 10th-grade students were defined operationally by their performance on the Ninth-Grade Ohio Proficiency Tests See aptitude tests. (OPT). The five test batteries measure reading, writing, mathematics, citizenship, and science (Ohio Department of Education, 2000). Those 10th-graders who, after three attempts, failed to pass at least three tests were defined as low test-success. When the three-test failure criterion was applied to the high school population, 48 low test-success students were identified out of 352 tenth-graders, or 14 percent. Twenty-two were female and 26 were male. Math was a common test to fail--more than 75 percent failed. Similarly, three subsequent graduating classes had average three-test failure rates of 14.5 percent. The comparison group of 10th-graders was selected randomly, with the same number of females and males, from all who passed five tests on their first attempt at the end of 8th grade. They were defined as high test-success. The result was two groups of 48 with an equal number of males and females. Procedure Using names and common identification numbers, the participants' cumulative folders from kindergarten kindergarten [Ger.,=garden of children], system of preschool education. Friedrich Froebel designed (1837) the kindergarten to provide an educational situation less formal than that of the elementary school but one in which children's creative play instincts would be through 9th grade were retrieved. To ensure accuracy of locating, interpreting, and recording the variables, four district administrators and the author screened the first 20 folders selected at random. After discussion and consensus, 100 percent agreement was achieved. Then, the five coders divided up the remaining 76 folders. Six years of cumulative data were reviewed from all 96 students (i.e., grades 1 through 6). The academic variables were: 1. Participation in a remedial REMEDIAL. That which affords a remedy; as, a remedial statute, or one which is made to supply some defects or abridge some superfluities of the common law. 1 131. Com. 86. The term remedial statute is also applied to those acts which give a new remedy. Esp. Pen. Act. 1. program (the federal Title I program) at grades 1-3 2. Mathematics achievement (Iowa Tests of Basic Skills, ITBS ITBS Iowa Test of Basic Skills ITBS Iliotibial Band Syndrome ITBS Industrial Technologies Business Solutions ) in percentile percentile, n the number in a frequency distribution below which a certain percentage of fees will fall. E.g., the ninetieth percentile is the number that divides the distribution of fees into the lower 90% and the upper 10%, or that fee level at grades 4 and 6 3. End-of-year classroom math mark of A or B for each of grades 3-6 4. Reading achievement (ITBS) at grades 4 and 6 5. End-of-year classroom reading mark of A or B for each of grades 3-6. Where data on more than three variables were missing, the student was omitted from analysis, hence the number on which comparisons were based varied from 42 to 44 per group. Analysis The high and low test-success data, for each of the four grade levels, were analyzed an·a·lyze tr.v. an·a·lyzed, an·a·lyz·ing, an·a·lyz·es 1. To examine methodically by separating into parts and studying their interrelations. 2. Chemistry To make a chemical analysis of. 3. using a chi square chi square (kī), n a nonparametric statistic used with discrete data in the form of frequency count (nominal data) or percentages or proportions that can be reduced to frequencies. test of association, t-tests, and effect sizes. Effect size (d) is becoming more required when reporting mean comparisons (Thompson Thompson, city, Canada Thompson, city (1991 pop. 14,977), central Man., Canada, on the Burntwood River. A mining town, it developed after large nickel deposits were discovered in the area in 1956. , 1994; Thompson & Snyder, 1997). The effect size describes mean differences in units of standard deviation In statistics, the average amount a number varies from the average number in a series of numbers. (statistics) standard deviation - (SD) A measure of the range of values in a set of numbers. . Thus, a d of 1.0 indicates a difference greater than one standard deviation (i.e., enough to separate the 84th from the 50th percentile in a population). Statistical significance often identifies small probabilistic (probability) probabilistic - Relating to, or governed by, probability. The behaviour of a probabilistic system cannot be predicted exactly but the probability of certain behaviours is known. Such systems may be simulated using pseudorandom numbers. differences, but effect sizes greater than 0.5 infer sizable siz·a·ble also size·a·ble adj. Of considerable size; fairly large. siz  a·ble·ness n. differences (i.e., differences that have practical
decision-considering value). The d was computed as follows (when the
groups' ns and standard deviations are similar, as in this study):
d = ([M.sub.H]-[M.sub.L])/S[D.sub.larger] where [M.sub.H] is the mean of the high test-success group, [M.sub.L] is the mean of the low test-success group, S[D.sub.larger] is the larger of the two groups' standard deviation. Results Title I Participation Sixty-eight of the 96 students did not participate in Title I in 1st grade; 13 did and 15 records were unclear. Within the low test-success group, 12 of 40 participated, while only 1 of 41 participated from the high test-success group in 1st grade. Although one cell contained less than five, the proportion of Title I students from high success group was statistically different than the proportion from the low test-success group ([chi square] of 10.77, df=1, p<.001). The high test-success group members did not participate in 2nd or 3rd grade, so further comparison ended. The fact that 1st-graders at risk academically were still at risk in 10th grade was troubling and should be cause for further investigation. Reading Marks High test-success students received considerably more A or B marks in reading than low test-success students, across 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th grades (see Table 1). In 3rd grade, 13.6 percent of the high test-success group had marks of C or lower, versus 86.4 percent with A or B. Within the low-test success group, 58.1 percent received C or lower marks, versus 41.9 percent with A or B marks. The contrast was greater for the subsequent three grades. For 4th, 5th, and 6th grades, the high test-success group exceeded 83 percent A or B in their group, while the low test-success group never exceeded 31 percent A or B. Percentages at all grade levels were not homogeneous The same. Contrast with heterogeneous. homogeneous - (Or "homogenous") Of uniform nature, similar in kind. 1. In the context of distributed systems, middleware makes heterogeneous systems appear as a homogeneous entity. For example see: interoperable network. across the two groups. Significant relationships between test-success and marks in reading were found for all grades--low success students were consistently below the high success students on teacher marks. Math Marks Within the high test-success group, A or B marks were much more common than within the low test-success group, across 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th grade. In 3rd grade, high success students had 77.3 percent A or B and 22.7 percent had C or lower. Conversely con·verse 1 intr.v. con·versed, con·vers·ing, con·vers·es 1. To engage in a spoken exchange of thoughts, ideas, or feelings; talk. See Synonyms at speak. 2. , low success students had 28.6 percent A or B marks and 71.4 percent had C or lower marks. Consistent with reading marks, the math marks contrast was more apparent in the subsequent three grades. The high test-success group percentage with A or B at 4th, 5th, and 6th grade was 84.1 percent, 79.5 percent, and 63.6 percent, respectively. The low success group had A or B percentages of 14 percent, 27.9 percent, and 16.3 percent, respectively. Percentages at all grade levels were not homogeneous across the two groups. Significant relationships between test-success and marks in mathematics were found--low success students were consistently behind the high success students in good marks. Reading Achievement The high test-success group scored at the 76.9 and 74.3 percentiles in 4th and 6th grades (the only two grades in which tests were administered in the district) (see Table 2). The low test-success groups scored at the 35.8 and 35.4 percentiles. Independent samples t-tests, at both grade levels, indicated the high test-success group was statistically greater than the low-test success groups (ts = 11.09 and 11.77, respectively; df = 85, p <.001). Effect sizes indicated strong practical significance. The high test-success means were greater than the low test-success by 2.4 and 2.5 standard deviations in 4th and 6th grades, respectively. That is approximately two standard deviations, or the difference between the 84th percentile and 16th percentile in a population--a considerable distance apart. Mathematics Achievement The high test-success group scored at the 80 percentile in 4th grade and at the 76 percentile in 6th grade (see Table 2). The low test-success groups scored at the 35.8 and 34.8 percentiles. Independent samples t-tests, at both grade levels, indicated the high test-success group was statistically greater than the low-test success group (ts = 15.20 and 12.25, respectively; df = 85, p <.001). Effect sizes were 3.2 and 2.4, respectively. This indicated strong practical significance (i.e., 3.2 and 2.4 standard deviation units separate the two groups' means). The first d was comparable to a separation greater than that between the 95th percentile and the 5th percentile in a population. The second d was greater than that between the 84th and the 16th percentile. Summary Two common measures of elementary student performance, conveniently available from student cumulative folders, were significantly higher for students who passed high-stakes tests on the first try in 8th grade. The same measures for students who still failed three or more tests after 8th grade were consistently and significantly lower. The high test-success students consistently out-performed low test-success students on standardized tests A standardized test is a test administered and scored in a standard manner. The tests are designed in such a way that the "questions, conditions for administering, scoring procedures, and interpretations are consistent" [1] and on end-of-year teacher marks in reading and math for 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 6th grades. The statistical differences and practical significance suggested that the two groups were very different from one another from as early as 3rd grade and remained different through 6th grade. In fact, as early as 1st grade, more of the low test-success than high test-success students were targeted for Title I intervention. Discussion This non-experimental study related familiar and commonly available elementary students' data to their later high-stakes test results. Some limitations to the study should be considered before further discussion. This was a case study of one district working on a plan of school improvement, albeit typical of location, size, and resources of small midwestern U.S. cities. The results affirm the importance of information from early grades being useful in anticipating later success and failure. Second, for the purpose of discrimination, a high- and a low-achievement test group were selected for comparison. Student performance in the mid-range of high school test performance was not included. A similar study sampling students from all levels of test performance would be an appropriate follow-up follow-up, n the process of monitoring the progress of a patient after a period of active treatment. follow-up subsequent. follow-up plan study. Nevertheless, limitations considered, the results were compelling: weak elementary academic performance was associated with weak high school test results; strong elementary academic performance was associated with strong high school test results. Specific explanation of the results follows each research question. What familiar academic measures might alert principals and teachers to students' risk of failure on state tests? First-grade reading intervention, elementary teachers' end-of-year marks in reading and mathematics, and elementary achievement test scores were consistently available for 10th-graders. Most all school districts record and compile To translate a program written in a high-level programming language into machine language. See compiler. this standard information. All the data in the district studied were in paper form and were coded and digitally recorded for organization and analysis. The creation and coding of variables requires an understanding of levels of measurement. Although not a difficult task, it does necessitate ne·ces·si·tate tr.v. ne·ces·si·tat·ed, ne·ces·si·tat·ing, ne·ces·si·tates 1. To make necessary or unavoidable. 2. To require or compel. quantitative skills, experience with measurement, and familiarity with standard spreadsheet spreadsheet Computer software that allows the user to enter columns and rows of numbers in a ledgerlike format. Any cell of the ledger may contain either data or a formula that describes the value that should be inserted therein based on the values in other cells. software. Seventh-, 8th-, and 9th-grade data were not included in the analyses, because they would have been collected in close proximity to or after administration of the state test. Primary grade data were omitted because of many missing values In statistics, missing values are a common occurrence. Several statistical methods have been developed to deal with this problem. Missing values mean that no data value is stored for the variable in the current observation. and reservations about the validity of the test results for this age student. Finally, there were no letter marks for kindergarten and 1st-grade students because of district practice. Although this research question addressed test performance, the result suggests some curriculum alignment weakness. Assuming these data were reviewed by the district, the curriculum and instructional methods seem to change little from intermediate to secondary grades. How well do elementary students' academic measures compare with their state high school test performance? End-of-year marks and scores on achievement tests in the intermediate grades were related to state test performance in high school. Participation in 1st-grade remediation, teachers' low marks for reading and math, and low standardized achievement test percentiles in math and reading were strongly linked to poor high-stakes state test results. High marks and high test scores were associated with success on high-stakes tests later in high school. Familiar data from 1st and 3rd grade can alert teachers to potential testing difficulties as far ahead as 10th grade. High marks and high percentile test scores from 4th, 5th, and 6th grade were associated with high test-success in high school. Low marks and percentile test scores were associated with low test-success. The need for 1st-grade reading intervention was an indicator of skill deficiency linked to poor state test performance in 10th grade. Although based on a small number of Title I students, these results were troubling. The fact that these 1st-graders received intervention because they were at-risk yet by the secondary level they were still at-risk suggests more profound educational problems. This is further inference (logic) inference - The logical process by which new facts are derived from known facts by the application of inference rules. See also symbolic inference, type inference. that curriculum and instruction are not aligned with the tested standards. Apparently, other variables should be included or closer attention to those that were available is needed when tracking young at-risk children. Early intervention ear·ly intervention n. Abbr. EI A process of assessment and therapy provided to children, especially those younger than age 6, to facilitate normal cognitive and emotional development and to prevent developmental disability or delay. in 1st grade and low 3rd- through 6th-grade marks and achievement test results in math and reading were associated with poor test performance in 10th grade. Within the current climate of accountability, research-based strategies to reduce student failure are essential. Convenient, familiar, and transparent data can identify elementary students who may be at-risk in upper grades. Elementary educators should consider using low marks and weak test results as serious warnings of later potential for failure. More crucially, secondary educators must appreciate the potential value of these elementary academic data for their instructional programming. Convenient, familiar, and transparent predictors of later academic success or failure will enable district staff to better plan for more effective test-taking strategies; more important, they should plan comprehensive curriculum alignment through professional development (cf. McGehee & Griffith, 2001). This study confirmed the validity of teachers' marks and achievement tests as warning indicators for later secondary school success, as measured by high-stakes tests. The relationships identified re-emphasize the importance of classroom achievement as well as success taking tests. Testing in intermediate grades may help prepare for later test performance. The instruction and assessment performed by the elementary classroom teacher appear related to knowledge and skills measured by curriculum-aligned tests much later in a student's schooling. One may infer that traditional classroom objectives and assessment, assuming alignment with the state curriculum, are just as valuable as test preparation strategies for later high-stakes test performance. One unanswered question concerns who will do the data collection, coding, organization, appropriate analysis, translation, and communication. Large districts have measurement and evaluation specialists. However, few small city and suburban districts, and still fewer rural districts, have such staff. Current recommendations for principals include data-based decision making and appropriate professional development (Jandris, 2001; National Policy Board for Educational Administration, 2002). The Education Commission of the States (Armstrong & Anthes, 2001) recommends the planning, analysis, and use of data by teachers and principals in the course of school-wide improvement efforts. Finally, the principles of total quality management have long advocated for data-driven continuous improvement processes where teachers, principals, staff, and even students are involved in school-wide improvement efforts (Bonstingl, 1992). Another professional available, at least part-time, to assist with school level research and analysis is the school psychologist psy·chol·o·gist n. A person trained and educated to perform psychological research, testing, and therapy. psychologist . As part of their training, students in many school psychology programs must take two or three courses in the scientific study of psychology: measurement, research methods, and data analysis techniques. The National Association of School Psychologists The National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) is the first and largest national professional organization created for the purpose of serving school psychologists. (1997) specifies, in its Blueprint blueprint, white-on-blue photographic print, commonly of a working drawing used during building or manufacturing. The plan is first drawn to scale on a special paper or tracing cloth through which light can penetrate. for Training and Practice II, competence in applying data-based problem solving problem solving Process involved in finding a solution to a problem. Many animals routinely solve problems of locomotion, food finding, and shelter through trial and error. to student group and systems problems, demonstrating knowledge of assessment of curricula and instructional contexts, and knowledge of research and program evaluation Program evaluation is a formalized approach to studying and assessing projects, policies and program and determining if they 'work'. Program evaluation is used in government and the private sector and it's taught in numerous universities. . Like many accredited accredited recognition by an appropriate authority that the performance of a particular institution has satisfied a prestated set of criteria. accredited herds cattle herds which have achieved a low level of reactors to, e.g. state universities, Kent (OH) State University (2003) and Pennsylvania State University Pennsylvania State University, main campus at University Park, State College; land-grant and state supported; coeducational; chartered 1855, opened 1859 as Farmers' High School. (2003) follow these requirements. School psychologists have the training and experience to understand and apply empirical research Noun 1. empirical research - an empirical search for knowledge inquiry, research, enquiry - a search for knowledge; "their pottery deserves more research than it has received" . Finally, the most crucial professionals are the teachers. They should be helped to review their school's data. This should lead to their decision to investigate relationships between achievement and instruction. They should be given opportunities to develop instructional units to meet student deficiencies. Principals and school psychologists could help develop and facilitate such professional development. Professional development for principals, teachers, and school psychologists should address data analysis, action research, and curriculum alignment. Within a year of delivering the results of this study, the district initiated a reform effort to improve student performance based upon the Baldrige model of aligning a·lign v. a·ligned, a·lign·ing, a·ligns v.tr. 1. To arrange in a line or so as to be parallel: align the tops of a row of pictures; aligned the car with the curb. standards, assessments, and accountability (National Institute of Standards and Technology National Institute of Standards and Technology, governmental agency within the U.S. Dept. of Commerce with the mission of "working with industry to develop and apply technology, measurements, and standards" in the national interest. , 2004). A consulting firm Noun 1. consulting firm - a firm of experts providing professional advice to an organization for a fee consulting company business firm, firm, house - the members of a business organization that owns or operates one or more establishments; "he worked for a that specializes in education was hired to facilitate professional development for teachers and principals. The conclusions suggested the following actions: 1. Collect, distribute, and review marks and achievement data with staff. This would entail entail, in law, restriction of inheritance to a limited class of descendants for at least several generations. The object of entail is to preserve large estates in land from the disintegration that is caused by equal inheritance by all the heirs and by the ordinary defining important student data, then locating, organizing, and analyzing the data. Include secondary teachers in the distribution and discussion of elementary marks and test results. 2. Develop intervention strategies based upon objective scientific data. Working together with curriculum specialists, teachers, the principal, and the school psychologist could help suggest ways to improve instruction and reduce poor test success. 3. Develop coordinated, differentiated early grades intervention with data-based monitoring to evaluate effectiveness. This suggestion might include parents' and secondary teachers' involvement to justify and share needed intervention strategies. 4. Defend the use of classroom marks at the elementary level as important indicators of longitudinal lon·gi·tu·di·nal adj. Running in the direction of the long axis of the body or any of its parts. monitoring of student test performance. An informed educator must be an objective advocate for the use of marks and other student data to improve schooling. 5. Initiate professional development activities related to the use of student data to build research-based instructional activities and interventions. The current accountability movement rightly emphasizes research-based, scientific evidence for new curricular and instructional strategies. Schools must assess yearly progress, monitor student data, and plan research-based interventions when necessary. Improving achievement through prevention rather than remediation after failure is a more proactive strategy. Thus, knowing well in advance which students may have difficulties with high-stakes tests at the secondary level has pedagogical ped·a·gog·ic also ped·a·gog·i·cal adj. 1. Of, relating to, or characteristic of pedagogy. 2. Characterized by pedantic formality: a haughty, pedagogic manner. value and suggests the need for thorough review of tests, standards, and instruction. Familiar, transparent, and useful student variables that are associated with success or failure on such tests is available by using data contained in students' cumulative folders. Then, teachers and principals would be able to collect, analyze, and use the results for research-based adjustments to the taught curriculum in the spirit of collaborative, professional development. References Airasian, P. W. (1987). State mandated testing and educational reform: Context and consequences. American Journal of Education Founded as School Review in 1893, the American Journal of Education acquired its present name in November 1979. Published by the University of Chicago Press, AJE , 95(3), 393-412. Armstrong, J., & Anthes, K. (2001). Identifying the factors, conditions and policies that support schools' use of data for decision-making and school improvement: Summary and findings (Policy Brief). Denver, CO: Education Commission of the States. Retrieved May 17, 2005, from www.quality.nist.gov/Education_Criteria.htm Barrington, B. L., & Hendricks, B. (1989). Differentiating characteristics of high school graduates, dropouts, and non-graduates. Journal of Education Research, 82, 309-319. Bonstingl, J. J. (1992). Schools of quality: An introduction to Total Quality Management in education. Reston, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, or ASCD, is a membership-based nonprofit organization founded in 1943. It has more than 175,000 members in 135 countries, including superintendents, supervisors, principals, teachers, professors of education, and . Congressional Record. (February 12, 2002). H. R. 1: Close the achievement gap with accountability, flexibility, and choice, so that no child is left behind. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Creighton, T. B. (2001). Data analysis in administrators' hands: An oxymoron? The School Administrator, April 2001, 11. Education Commission of the States. (2002). State performance indictors. ECS See eComStation. State Notes: Accountability. Denver, CO: Author. Retrieved May 10, 2005, from www.ecs.org/html/newsmedia/e-connection.asp#bn Glatthorn, A. A. (1999). Curriculum alignment revisited. Journal of Curriculum Supervision, 15(1), 26-34. Gleason, P., & Dynarski, M. (2002). Do we know whom to serve? Issues in using risk factors to identify dropouts. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 7(1), 25-41. Hartman, J. (1989). Identifying high school students likely to fail a minimum competency COMPETENCY, evidence. The legal fitness or ability of a witness to be heard on the trial of a cause. This term is also applied to written or other evidence which may be legally given on such trial, as, depositions, letters, account-books, and the like. 2. test in mathematics required for graduation. Florida Educational Research Council Research Bulletin, 21(3), 1-40 (Whole issue). Jacobs, H. H. (1997). Mapping the big picture: Integrating curriculum and assessment K-12. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Jandris, T. (2001). Essentials for principals: Data-based decision-making. Alexandria, VA: National Association of Elementary Principals. Jimerson, S., Egeland, B., Sroufe, L. A., & Carlson, B. (2000). A prospective longitudinal study longitudinal study a chronological study in epidemiology which attempts to establish a relationship between an antecedent cause and a subsequent effect. See also cohort study. of high school dropouts examining multiple predictors across development. Journal of School Psychology, 38(6), 525-549. Kent State University. (2003). Graduate programs in school psychology. Kent, OH: Author. Retrieved October 23, 2004, from www. educ.kent.edu/EFSS/programs/SP/ Koret Task Force on K-12 Education. (2003). Our schools and our future: Are we still at risk? Palo Alto Palo Alto, city, California Palo Alto (păl`ō ăl`tō), city (1990 pop. 55,900), Santa Clara co., W Calif.; inc. 1894. Although primarily residential, Palo Alto has aerospace, electronics, and advanced research industries. , CA: Hoover Institution The Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace is a public policy think tank and library founded by Herbert Hoover at Stanford University, his alma mater. The Institution was founded in 1919 and over time has amassed a huge archive of documentation related to President , Stanford University Stanford University, at Stanford, Calif.; coeducational; chartered 1885, opened 1891 as Leland Stanford Junior Univ. (still the legal name). The original campus was designed by Frederick Law Olmsted. David Starr Jordan was its first president. . Retrieved May 10, 2005, from www.educationnext.org Lloyd, D. N. (1978). Prediction of school failure from third-grade data. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 38(4), 1193-1200. McGehee, J. J., & Griffith, L. K. (2001). Large-scale assessments combined with curriculum alignment: Agents of change. Theory Into Practice, 40(2), 137-144. National Association of School Psychologists. (1997). School psychology: A blueprint for training and practice II. Bethesda, MD: Author. Retrieved May 10, 2005, http://spsy. educ.kent.edu/resources/blue2.pdf National Institute of Standards and Technology. (2004). Baldrige criteria for performance excellence. Gaithersburg, MD: Author. National Policy Board for Educational Administration. (2002). Standards for advanced programs in educational leadership. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved May 10, 2005, from www.npbea.org/ELCC/Instructions%20 to%20ELCC ELCC Early Learning and Child Care (Canada) ELCC Educational Leadership Constituent Council (Reston, VA) ELCC effective load carrying capacity ELCC Enchanted Lens Camera Club %20Standards.102.pdf Ohio Department of Education (ODE ode, elaborate and stately lyric poem of some length. The ode dates back to the Greek choral songs that were sung and danced at public events and celebrations. ). (2000). ODE proficiency results-ninth grade. Retrieved October 23, 2004, from www.ode.state. oh.us/proficiency/results9.asp Pennsylvania State University. (2003). Graduate program in school psychology. Retrieved May 10, 2005, from http://espse.ed.psu.edu/ spsy/Courses.html Roderick, M., Bryk, A. S., Jacob, B. A., Easton, J. Q., & Allensworth, E. (1999). Ending social promotion: Results from the first two years. Chicago: Consortium of Chicago School Research and the University of Chicago. Retrieved May 10, 2005, from www.consortiumchicago.org/publications/p0g04.html Rumberger, R. W. (1987). High school dropouts: A review of issues and evidence. Review of Educational Research, 57, 101-121. Schmoker, M. (1996). Results: The key to continuous school improvement. Reston, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Shapiro, E. S. (1988). Preventing academic failure. School Psychology Review, 17(4), 601-613. Simner, M. L., & Barnes, M. J. (1991). Relationship between first-grade marks and the high school dropout problem. Journal of School Psychology, 29, 331-335. Thompson, B. (1994). The concept of statistical significance testing. ERIC/AE Digest Digest: see Corpus Juris Civilis. (1) A compilation of all the traffic on a news group or mailing list. Digests can be daily or weekly. (2) Any compilation or summary. . Whole issue. [Educational Resources and Information Clearinghouse ED366654] Thompson, B., & Snyder, P. A. (1997). Statistical significance testing practices in "The Journal of Experimental Education." Journal of Experimental Education, 66(1), 75-83. Whitely, B. J., Weinshenker, M., Seelig, S. E., & Schneider, B. (2002). The AERA AERA American Educational Research Association AERA Automotive Engine Rebuilders Association AERA Air Emissions Risk Analysis AERA Accelerating Economic Recovery in Asia AERA American European Racquetball Association Research Grants Program: Key findings of selected studies (A report to the AERA Grants Board). Chicago: American Educational Research Association The American Educational Research Association, or AERA, was founded in 1916 as a professional organization representing educational researchers in the United States and around the world. . Retrieved May 10, 2005, from www.aera.net/grantsprogram/subweb/synthesis.pdf Philip A. Griswold East Stroudsburg University of Pennsylvania East Stroudsburg University of Pennsylvania is a public university located in East Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania. It is one of the 14 state universities that compose the Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education (PASSHE). East Stroudsburg, PA
Table 1
Percent End-of-Year Marks in Reading (R) and Math (M) by Test Success
in High School Over 4 Grade Levels
Grade Level
3 4 5
Test Success Test Success Test Success
High Low High Low High Low
Marks
R As & Bs 86.4 41.9 86.0 23.8 83.7 26.2
R Cs & lower 13.6 58.1 14.0 76.2 16.3 73.8
N for Risk Group 44 43 43 42 43 42
M As & Bs 77.3 28.6 84.1 14.0 79.5 27.9
M Cs & lower 22.7 71.4 15.9 86.0 20.5 72.1
N for Risk Group 44 42 44 43 44 43
Grade Level
6
Test Success
High Low
Marks
R As & Bs 88.6 31
R Cs & lower 11.4 69
N for Risk Group 44 42
M As & Bs 63.6 16.3
M Cs & lower 36.4 83.7
N for Risk Group 44 43
Note. Every comparison showed significant association between test
success and marks; all chi square tests exceeded 20.00, df = 1,
p < .001.
Table 2
ITBS Reading and Math Percentiles and Effect Sizes (d) by Test Success
in High School Across Two Grade Levels
Grade Levels
4
Test Success
High Low
Mean Reading 75.9 35.8
d [left arrow] 2.4 [right arrow]
SD, N 17,44 16.8, 43
Mean Math 80.8 35.8
d [left arrow] 3.2 [right arrow]
SD, N 13.3, 44 14.1, 43
Grade Levels
6
Test Success
High Low
Mean Reading 74.3 35.4
[left arrow] 2.5 [right arrow]
15.4, 44 15.4, 43
Mean Math 76 34.8
[left arrow] 2.4 [right arrow]
SD, N 15.4, 44 18.2, 43
Note. Each of the four Test Success comparisons were significantly
different using an independent t, df=85, p<.001.
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