Recreation and juvenile delinquency prevention: how recreation professionals can design programs that really work. (Research Update).

In 1999 there were 2.5 million arrests of persons under the age of 18. Twenty-seven percent of the arrests involved females, and 32% were youths under 15. Although arrests for violent and property crimes dropped 23% and 24% respectively from 1995 to 1999, the numbers are still staggering (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 2000). Prevention has been a primary goal of law enforcement agencies and those in related fields who seek to divert youths from antisocial behavior at an early age. Comprehensive strategies involving health, family, employment, education and recreation can play an important role in preventing juvenile delinquency, defined as "criminal behavior committed by minors" (Siegel & Senna, 1997, p.10).

The popular press and criminology literature concur that there is a relationship between recreation and delinquency prevention. However, research on this relationship is lacking. This is unfortunate because leisure is a highly relevant factor in the lives of adolescents rivaling school, peers and family in importance (Adams & Gullotta, 1983; Munson, 1993; Silbereisen & Todt, 1994).

Social reformers in the mid to late 19th century advocated recreation as a means to combat delinquency (Cross, 1990; Larson, 1994; Witt & Crompton, 1997). Jane Addams, for example, believed that wholesome activities provided by public recreation organizations were "the only agency powerful enough to break into this intensified and unwholesome life" (Addams, 1913, p. 24). The belief among many professionals, past and present, is that with adult guidance, these activities promote "initiative, build character, discourage delinquency and provide laboratories for training in citizenship" (Larson, 1994, p. 46). Such activities are often referred to as "recreation," which is defined as "voluntary non-work activity that is organized for the attainment of personal and social benefits including restoration and social cohesion" (Kelly, 1996, p. 27).

While traditional beliefs suggest that recreation has the potential to prevent delinquency, most studies have not conclusively demonstrated that it does (Reed, 1948; Shanas & Dunning, 1942; Truxall, 1929). Carefully planned investigations are needed that explain relationships among critical variables, and that determine effects from recreation activities and programs on youth's attitudes, beliefs and behaviors (McGuire & Priestley, 1985, Munson, 1988, Witt & Crompton, 1997). Programs should focus on prevention, have long-term goals and objectives, and be part of a comprehensive plan (Witt & Crompton, 1997). They also should be based on a theory that "determines the construction of programs" (Kralj & Allen, 1982, p. 224).

Why are Some Juveniles Delinquent?

Many theoretical models from the social sciences have been promoted to explain juvenile delinquency. Psychological approaches include: behavioral, psychodynamic, social learning, self concept and cognitive theory. Sociological perspectives used to explain juvenile delinquency include social disorganization, strain, and the sub-cultural deviance theory (Kratcoski & Kratcoski, 1996).

The social control theory provides an explanation of how recreation and juvenile delinquency are associated (Agnew & Petersen, 1989; Siegel & Senna, 1997). Control theories suggest that delinquent acts occur when a youth's bond to society becomes weak or is broken (Hirschi, 1969). Several social control theorists have tried to explain the association between recreation and delinquency (Gold, 1963; Nye, 1958; Schafer, 1969). Hirschi (1969) suggested that the probability of delinquency is reduced when an individual is high in one or more social bonds such as attachment, commitment, involvement or belief.

How Can Park and Recreation Programs Help Prevent Delinquency?

Hirschi (1969) explains several ways to develop social bonds through attachments, commitment, involvement and bonds.

Attachment--Attachment refers to an individual's sensitivity to, interest in, and amount of affection and respect for significant others such as parents and teachers (Agnew & Petersen, 1989; Siegel & Senna, 1997). Hirschi (1969) indicated that these feelings are "the essence of the internalization of norms" needed for the attachment of the individual to others (pp. 18-19). Engaging in pleasurable leisure activities with parents and participating in recreation activities in school and community increase attachments to these institutions (Agnew & Petersen, 1989). Farrington, Ohlin and Wilson (1986) found weak affectional relations between parents and children were associated with antisocial behavior and that shared leisure activities were an important factor in family bonding and prevention of juvenile delinquency.

In one of the first comprehensive studies of leisure and delinquency, Agnew and Petersen (1989) hypothesized that participation in organized activities (i.e., highly supervised activities supervised by conventional adults) and pleasurable activities that include parents may increase attachment and commitment to conventional organizations (e.g., school), foster conventional beliefs, and reduce opportunities for delinquency. Their study indicated that delinquency was positively related to time spent in unsupervised peer-oriented social activities and least favored activities with parents. Time spent in organized leisure activities, passive entertainment and non-competitive sports were negatively related to delinquency. The researchers concluded that certain types of leisure activities are unrelated to delinquency while other forms may foster it. Requiring youths to participate in disliked activities may do more harm than good. Thus, attachment or bonding to conventional norms may best be facilitated through participation in organized activities supervised by conventional adults, passive entertainment (e.g., reading, listening to records, watching TV) and noncompetitive sports.

Commitment--Personal commitment "involves time, energy and effort expended in pursuit of conventional lines of action" (Siegel & Senna, 1997, p. 189). If persons invest a significant amount of time and effort in the acquisition of a reputation based on virtue, they will consider the costs of delinquent behavior and the consequences of such actions and be less likely to engage in activities that might jeopardize their reputation (Hirschi, 1969; Schafer, 1969; Siegel & Senna, 1997). Recreation activities are believed to foster greater commitment to conventional institutions (Agnew & Petersen, 1989). For example, it is believed that the increased prestige and social status accrued from participation in high school athletics fosters commitment to more positive social attitudes and goals and deters delinquency (Landers & Landers, 1978).

To investigate the effects of participation in extracurricular activities on juvenile delinquency, Landers and Landers (1978) gathered archival data of 521 students from a northeastern high school. Students were grouped in the following activity categories: athlete, service-leadership, both or neither. After development of lists, names were taken to the town courthouse to determine the number of misdemeanor or felony offenses of students in each category. Results indicated a significant association between delinquency and extracurricular activity participation. Participants in the "neither" category were more likely to engage in delinquent acts than those in the athlete, service/leadership, or both categories. There was no support for the contention that athletics affords greater socialization opportunities than other types of extracurricular activities.

Involvement--If youths are involved in conventional activities, they will be too busy and thus less likely to engage in delinquent behavior (Siegel & Senna, 1997). For example, Hirschi (1969) believes that involvement in school, family and recreation activities insulates youths from delinquent behavior. Involvement includes more than simply keeping busy; it is more important how "engrossed and involved" adolescents are in the activities in which they are engaged.

Jones and Offord (1989) evaluated the effects of involvement in an after-school recreation program on low-income children, five to 15 years old, who reside in public housing in Ottawa, Ontario. The purpose of the program was to increase their involvement with pro-social youths and adults and for development and improvement of skills in sports, music, dance, scouting and other non-sport areas. After reaching a certain level of competence, children were encouraged to continue participation in on-going programs in the community such as leagues and other competitive activities.

Results of the program indicated that the number of arrests declined significantly (75%) for the experimental project and increased (67%) for those in the control project. Unfortunately, 16 months after the conclusion of the project, positive changes diminished significantly. However, the authors concluded that getting kids involved with pro-social recreation activities during after-school hours appears to have merit in reducing delinquent behavior in the community.

Positive Beliefs--Persons who live in similar social environments are assumed to share a common moral perspective or value system. They can espouse positive beliefs such as sharing, honesty, and responsibility. Control theories suggest that when such beliefs are weak or absent, people are more likely to engage in unlawful behaviors (Hirschi, 1969; Siegel & Senna, 1997). It is believed that certain types of recreation activities promote conventional values and prevent delinquency by impacting youths' bonds of beliefs.

In a test of Hirschi's (1969) social control theory, Larson and Richards (1989) hypothesized that adults maintain most extracurricular activities and that regular interaction among youths, sponsors, coaches and leaders facilitates pro-social beliefs, increases integration and suppresses delinquent behavior. Their sample included fifth to eighth graders who were studied at three points over four years. The results of the longitudinal investigation yielded the following:

Athletics. A negative relationship was found between sports and delinquency at the senior high school level, but not at the junior high school level. It appeared that this association increases with age, particularly for adolescents in the 11th and 12th grades. However, there was no indication that participation in sports increased pro-social behaviors nor did it suppress delinquency.

Arts and Hobbies. A modest negative relationship was found for all grade levels. The nature of this relationship suggested that greater participation in the arts and hobbies in grades nine through 10 resulted in less delinquency in grades 11 and 12. It was concluded that participation in arts and hobbies might reduce delinquency during the senior high school years.

Youth Organizations. The pattern of this data was almost identical to that of arts and hobbies. There was a strong negative relationship between participation in youth organizations in grades nine through 10 and delinquency in grades 11 and 12. Participation in youth organizations may reduce delinquency during the senior high school years. Overall, the results of Larson and Richard's longitudinal investigation provide "preliminary proof" that youth organizations, art and hobbies promote pro-social integration of adolescents and "inculcate a resistance to delinquent behavior" (p.54).

The research does not conclusively "prove" that recreation prevents delinquency; however, there is sufficient evidence to suggest that it may make a significant contribution to prevention when it is guided by appropriate theories and research. Control theories suggest that the probability of delinquency is reduced when individuals are high in one or more social bonds: attachment, commitment, involvement or beliefs. Recreation may increase bonding to conventional norms when youths: (a) participate in activities that are organized and supervised by conventional adults and engage in passive entertainment and noncompetitive sports; (b) engage in after school activities that are socially rewarding and provide alternatives to boredom and association with antisocial persons; (c) are "engrossed and involved" in conventional activities that increase the opportunities for involvement with pro-social people and development and improvement of skills which make participation in delinquent activities less desirable; and (d) participate in art, hobbies and youth organizations that promote pro-social integration and resistance to delinquent behavior.

References

Adams, G. R., & Gullotta, T. (1983). Adolescent Life Experiences. Monterey, CA: Brooks Cole.

Addams, J. (1913). The `Juvenile-Adult' Offender. Ladies Home Journal, 30, 24.

Agnew, R., & Petersen, D. M. (1989). Leisure and Delinquency. Social Problems, 36(14), 332-350.

Cross, G. (1990). A Social History of Leisure since 1600. State College, PA: Venture.

Farrington, D. P., Ohlin, L. E., & Wilson, J. Q. (1986). Understanding and Controlling Crime. New York: Springer-Verlag.

Garbarino, J. (1999). Lost boys: Why our Sons Turn Violent and How we can Save Them. New York: The Free Press.

Gold, M. (1963). Status Forces in Delinquent Boys. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research.

Hirschi, T. (1969). Causes of Delinquency. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Jones, M. B., & Offord, D. R. (1989). Reduction of Antisocial Behavior in Poor Children by Nonschool Skill Development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 30, 737-750.

Kralj, M. M., & Allen, L. (1982). Delinquency Prevention Programs: Models, Methods, and Social Policy. In S. W. Henggeler (Ed.), Delinquency and Adolescent Psychopathology: A Family-Ecological Systems Approach (pp. 223-239). Boston: John Wright PSG Inc.

Kratcoski, P. C., & Kratcoski, L. D. (4th ed.). (1996). Juvenile Delinquency. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Kelly, J. R. (3rd ed.). (1996). Leisure. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Landers D. M., & Landers, D. M. (1978). Socialization via Interscholastic Athletics: Its Effects on Delinquency. Sociology of Education, 51, 299-303.

Larson, R. (1994). Youth Organizations, Hobbies, and Sports as Developmental Contexts. In R. Silbereisen and E. Todt (Eds.), Adolescence in Context: The Interplay of Family, School, Peers and Work Adjustment. New York: Springer-Verlag.

Larson R., & Richards, M. (Eds.). (1989). The Changing Life Space of Early Adolescence [Special issue]. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 18(6), 501-626.

Marcus, R. F. (1996). The Friendships of Delinquents. Adolescence, 31(121), 145-158.

McGuire, J., & Priestley, P. (1985). Offending Behavior: Skills and Stratagems for Going Straight. New York: St. Martin's Press.

Munson, W. W. (1968). Effects of Leisure Education versus Physical Activity or Informal Discussion on Behaviorally Disordered Youth Offenders. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 5, 305-317.

Munson, W. W. (1993). Perceived Freedom in Leisure and Career Salience in Adolescence. Journal of Leisure Research, 25(3), 305-314.

Nye, F. I. (1958). Family Relationships and Delinquent Behavior. New York: Wiley.

Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP Statistical Briefing Book). (December, 2000). http://ojjdp.ncjrs. org/ojstabb/html/qa250.html.

Reed, E. (1946). How Effective are Group Work Agencies in Preventing Delinquency? Social Service Review, 22, 340-346.

Schafer, W. E. (1969). Participation in Interscholastic Athletics and Delinquency: A Preliminary Study. Social Problems, 17, 40-47.

Shanas, E. B., & Dunning, C. C. (1942). Recreation and Delinquency. Chicago, IL: Chicago Recreation Commission.

Siegel, L. J., & Senna, J. L. (6th ed.). (1997). Juvenile Delinquency: Theory, Practice, and Law. St. Paul: West Publishing Company.

Silbereisen, R. K., & Todt, E. (1994). Adolescence--A Matter of Context. In R. Silbereisen and E. Todt (Eds.), Adolescence in Context: The Interplay of Family, School, Peers, and Work in Adjustment (pp. 3-21). New York: Springer-Verlag.

Truxall, A.G. (1929). Outdoor Recreation Legislation and its Effectiveness. New York: Columbia University Press.

Witt, P. A., & Crompton, J. L. (1997). The At-Risk Youth Recreation Project. Parks & Recreation, January, 55-61.

RELATED ARTICLE: Research into action: theory and research as a guide to practice.

Can recreation prevent juvenile delinquency? Social scientists and recreation professionals have pondered this question for decades. Because juvenile delinquency is an interdisciplinary field of study, it is important for recreation professionals to become familiar with the various theories of delinquency so they are better able to develop meaningful preventive programs. Designing program strategies using a theoretical base helps to avoid random musings, haphazard guessing, and cookbook approaches. This is key because it has been found that some programs do more harm than good.

How To Use This Information

* Provide attractive alternatives to delinquent activities. Organized programs designed to stimulate interests through novel experiences help youths to become more engaged and involved, avoid boredom and reduce their desire to participate in delinquent behaviors.

* Provide opportunities for youths to bond with conventional adults in pleasurable, interesting recreational pursuits. Reduce contact with negative role models and peers who are involved in antisocial behaviors. Adolescents are less likely to be delinquent when they share in the activities with their parents, concerned adults and prosocial peers. A sense of connection and caring is vital.

* Provide activities that focus on skill building that result in feelings of competence and control. Pro-social activities that focus on self-direction, skills and challenges create enjoyable and satisfying experiences. These activities help to curb negative actions and promote positive beliefs, attitudes and behaviors.

* Promote activities that encourage and teach the creation and development of friendships. It has been shown that friendships help fill gaps in emotional needs of youths by sharing common interests, helping to resolve conflicts, learning social skills and reducing loneliness and insecurity (Marcus, 1996).

* Offer activities that help youths develop an identity that has a future orientation. Adolescents need the opportunity to achieve a clear and consistent picture of who they are with respect to their past, present and future. Without a future orientation, youths are less inclined to become involved in school, club and youth organizations and also be less able to delay gratification. Recreation activities that provide a life-long learning perspective (such as hobbies, playing a musical instrument, art, crafts and participation in organizations) help to generate positive beliefs and attitudes about the future.

* Design programs that incorporate cooperation, collaboration, empathy and reflection. It has been said that empathy is the enemy of aggression (Garbarino, 1999). Activities that focus on working together, downplay competition, and promote caring for things (e.g., plants, animals, etc.) can help to create sensitive and nurturing human beings.

* Train staff and volunteers to recognize children at risk of becoming delinquent (e.g., those who have a history of abuse, demonstrate aggressive behaviors, are alienated from their peers, etc.) and to become competent in communicating with such children. Training staff to become better listeners and responders can help youths feel understood and connected.

* Develop theory-based, comprehensive and outcome-oriented programs. Programs incorporating theory and that are linked to other delinquency-prevention efforts in the community (such as health, family, employment, and education) have greater potential to prevent delinquency. Short and long-term goals and objectives are necessary to determine successful outcomes (e.g., reduction in crime, aggressive behaviors, and increased positive feelings about self and others). Programs based on theory that incorporate experimental or quasi-experimental designs in their evaluation schemes have a greater chance for success, demonstrate greater accountability and also contribute to the knowledge base on delinquency prevention.

* Become familiar with delinquency prevention resources such as the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP). It provides national leadership, coordination and resources to prevent and respond to juvenile delinquency and victimization. The website provides information on grants and funding resources, programs, publications and a calendar of events. The OJJDP Web site is at www.ojjdp.ncjrs. org.

Wayne W. Munson, Ph.D., is a professor in the School of Exercise, Leisure and Sport at Kent State University. His research interests include juvenile delinquency, leisure education, and career development for adolescents. He enjoys reading, cycling and hiking.

Research Update is edited by Cheryl A. Estes, Ph.D., assistant professor in recreation and leisure studies at East Carolina University in Greenville, North Carolina.