Reciprocal pronouns: from discontinuity to unity.1. Introduction Present-day English has two reciprocal pronouns, one another and each other. According to according to prep. 1. As stated or indicated by; on the authority of: according to historians. 2. In keeping with: according to instructions. 3. Quirk quirk n. 1. A peculiarity of behavior; an idiosyncrasy: "Every man had his own quirks and twists" Harriet Beecher Stowe. 2. et al. (1985: 364-365), they are related to the reflexive pronouns in that they express a 'two-way reflexive (theory) reflexive - A relation R is reflexive if, for all x, x R x. Equivalence relations, pre-orders, partial orders and total orders are all reflexive. relationship'. These pronouns are compound units, and cannot be used in subject position in finite clauses. The reciprocals can co-refer only to plural noun phrases, since reciprocity reciprocity In international trade, the granting of mutual concessions on tariffs, quotas, or other commercial restrictions. Reciprocity implies that these concessions are neither intended nor expected to be generalized to other countries with which the contracting parties presupposes more than one participant Quirk et al. (1985) argue that in actual language usage there is no difference between these two pronouns despite the prescriptivists' preference for each other for reference to two and one another to many. A stylistic difference exists, however, so that each other is more common in informal style and one another in more formal contexts. The reciprocals are relatively rare, since the millionword Brown Corpus The Brown Corpus of Standard American English (or just Brown Corpus) was compiled by Henry Kucera and W. Nelson Francis at Brown University, Providence, RI as a general corpus (text collection) in the field of corpus linguistics. of American English American English n. The English language as used in the United States. Noun 1. American English - the English language as used in the United States American language, American only contains 114 instances of each other and 45 of one another. This paper sets out to find out when and how these two pronouns acquired their compound character. It also explores the textual and, to some extent, social constraints that may have played a role in their development. On the whole, the issue is about grammaticalization, if we interpret it here as a process in which grammatical items become more grammaticalized (e.g. Heine et al. 1991: 2). Two of the elements at issue, one and other, were originally numerals, and have been the objects of repeated grammaticalizations, acquiring various pronominal pro·nom·i·nal adj. 1. Of, relating to, or functioning as a pronoun. 2. Resembling a pronoun, as by specifying a person, place, or thing, while functioning primarily as another part of speech. functions during the history of English (see Rissanen: forthcoming). 2. The data This study uses The Corpus of Early English Early English Noun a style of architecture used in England in the 12th and 13th centuries, characterized by narrow pointed arches and ornamental intersecting stonework in windows Correspondence (Nevalainen - Raumolin-Brunberg 1996) and The Helsinki Corpus of English Texts (kyto 1993) as its main sources. The present version of The Correspondence Corpus (CEEC CEEC Central and Eastern European Country CEEC College Entrance Examination Center CEEC Comité Européen pour l'Enseignement Catholique (Belgium) CEEC Commerce and Engineering Environmental Conference ) covers 2.5 million running words from 1420 to 1680. For this paper I studied approximately 1.8 million words from 1540 to 1680. A systematic quantitative analysis Quantitative Analysis A security analysis that uses financial information derived from company annual reports and income statements to evaluate an investment decision. Notes: of this material was carried out for 1560-1681. From The Helsinki Corpus (HC) I chose the Early Modern English Early Modern English refers to the stage of the English language used from about the end of the Middle English period (the latter half of the 15th century) to 1650. Thus, the first edition of the King James Bible and the works of William Shakespeare both belong to the late phase section. covering the years 1500-1710 (c. 550,000 words), which has been divided into three subsections, E1 1500-70, E2 1570-1640 and E3 1640-1710. Comparisons were also made with The Shakespeare Corpus (Wells -- Taylor 1989). 3. Reciprocal pronouns from Middle English Middle English Vernacular spoken and written in England c. 1100–1500, the descendant of Old English and the ancestor of Modern English. It can be divided into three periods: Early, Central, and Late. to Early Modern English 3.1. Variety of forms Mustanoja (1960: 153-154) mentions that reciprocal function in Middle English could be expressed by some inherently reciprocal verbs alone, such as kiss, which is, of course, the case even today. Usually, however, reciprocity was indicated by each...other, every...other, either...other and their variants as well as one...other and plain other. These forms remained in use in Early Modern English as well, as we can see from examples (1-3) for each...other, (4-5) for every...other, (6) for either...other, and (7-10) for one...(another. Example (11) illustrates the use of other...other. (1) ... and in the menetyme, with good counsaile and prayer ech help other thitherwarde. (1534, Sir Thomas More 545) (2) ... and so wel shall lakke no payementes eche in other's necke, God send me monney to discharge all. (1549, Otwell Johnson 1084) (3) ... the suspicions that were risen betwene bothe the princes in eche one towardes thothers doinges... (1547, William Paget 12) (4) ... by the love you be are mee that [y.sup.u] [all] agree in perfect love and amity am·i·ty n. pl. am·i·ties Peaceful relations, as between nations; friendship. [Middle English amite, from Old French, from Vulgar Latin *am and account every one the others burthen to bee his so may plenty and prosperity dwell. (1613, Nicholas Ferrar Nicholas Ferrar (22 February 1592 - 4 December 1637) was an English scholar, courtier, businessman and man of religion. Ordained deacon in the Church of England, he retreated with his extended family to the manor of Little Gidding in Huntingdonshire, where he lived the rest of his 236) (5) ... where as euery lorde loued other, and none other thing studyed vppon, but aboute the Coronacion and honoure of the king... (E1 More Hist 16) (6) And therfore they muste be trewe eyther to other. (El Fitzherbert 98) (7) ... to deserue as muche good wit and affection as euer one prince owed another, wisching all meanes that may maintaine... (1586, Queen Elizabeth Queen Elizabeth, or Elizabeth, may refer to: Living people
Bohemia (8) ... unfaynedly beseching you all to praye for me as I do for you all, that we maye love hym above all & one of us another as ower selves... (1584, Dru Drury Dru Drury (February 4, 1725 – January 15, 1804) was a British entomologist, one of the foremost of his time. He was born in Wood Lane, London. His father was a silversmith, and Dru took over the business in 1748. II 287) (9) ... and setche a lawse company that thay had worke annough to pyke of lyse lyse (liz) 1. to cause or produce disintegration of a compound, substance, or cell. 2. to undergo lysis. lyse or lyze v. To undergo or cause to undergo lysis. oon oof on other's clothes. (1546, Sabine Johnson 788) (10) ... charrs are onely taken (by nett, never by hook) in Windermeer & Coniston waters, (two standing Lakes within five miles one of ([t.sup.e] other). (1665, Daniel Fleming 152) (11) ... do give their faithfull promise and vowe other to other to lyve togithir contynuallie the terme of their lief in mutuall socyetie... (1575, Stephen Drury 1151) Most of these examples are characterized by discontinuity dis·con·ti·nu·i·ty n. pl. dis·con·ti·nu·i·ties 1. Lack of continuity, logical sequence, or cohesion. 2. A break or gap. 3. Geology A surface at which seismic wave velocities change. , and do not represent the same type of compound unit as the Present-day English each other and one another. The reciprocal expression is divided between subject and object functions in examples (1), (5) and (7), so that either the first pronoun pronoun, in English, the part of speech used as a substitute for an antecedent noun that is clearly understood, and with which it agrees in person, number, and gender. , like each in (1), or a noun with a corresponding determiner (euery lord in (5) and one prince in (7)) represent the subject and (an)other the object. Discontinuity is also a characteristic of the phrases governed by a preposition preposition, in English, the part of speech embracing a small number of words used before nouns and pronouns to connect them to the preceding material, e.g., of, in, and about. , such as examples (2-3), (6), (9-11), in which the preposition is placed between the two elements, e.g. be trewe eyther to other in example (6). Several of the examples have the reciprocal in the genitive genitive (jĕn`ĭtĭv) [Lat.,=genetic], in Latin grammar, the case typically used to refer to a possessor. The term is used in the grammar of other languages, but the phenomenon referred to may not closely resemble a Latin genitive; thus a (examples 2-4 and 9), but here, too, discontinuity suggests that the genitive is only part of the latter element. In addition, the examples show that the reciprocal expressions varied considerably in form. The first part could be a simple pronoun like each, either and one but, in addition to noun-headed phrases, one can find compound pronouns like everyone and pronoun phrases such as eche one in (3) and one of us in (8). The second element was often other or another, but the definite form the other was not uncommon, e.g. (3-4) and (10). 3.2. Emergence of the compound pronouns Among the varied structures described above, the following three phrases began to develop characteristics typical of Present-day English reciprocal pronouns: one another, (the) one the other and each other. Gradually the divided subject use became rarer and these expressions were employed as objects, genitive phrases and prepositional prep·o·si·tion·al adj. Relating to or used as a preposition. prep  o·si complements. In objects or objective genitive phrases the elements were
naturally placed side by side, so that here position cannot be used as
evidence for the unity of the phrase, examples (12-14).
(12) ... while principal members gerring, and the heade becoming a partye shall seke to annoye one an other, the whole bodye must nedes myscarye... (1574, John Becon 249) (13) ... thickets lined with most pleasant shade, in which the nightingales For the bird, see .
Nightingales is a British Situation comedy set around the antics of three security guards working the night shift. strive one with the other which should in most dainty variety excel one the other. (1640, Henry Oxinden 166) (14) ... so we may reioyce and enioy ech others company... (1534, Sir Thomas More 545) (15) ... I praie God send them comfort of eche other. (1546, John Johnson John Johnson may refer to:
(16) ... wryte to me perfaictly from tyme to tyme, for ellis (perchaunce) for lakke of knewledge often of eche other's procedinges we may entre into a confusion of our thinges... (1547, Otwell Johnson 938) (17) It is good to quicken these affections in these affections in these dead declining tymes, and whet on one another in love and fayth which are the bonds of perfection uniting us one unto another, and all to Christ... (1629, Sir William Masham 77) (18) Have filled their pockets full of pebble stones And, banding themselves in contrary parts, Do pelt pelt the undressed, raw skin of a wild animal with the fur in place. If from a sheep or goat there is a short growth of wool or mohair on the skin. so fast at one another's pate That many have their giddy brains knocked out. (1592, Henry VI, Part I: 85) (19) ... and sayed the Scotish men must lett out one and others hott blood... (1632, Sir Thomas Barrington 243) Prepositional phrases and genitives can function as a testing ground Noun 1. testing ground - a region resembling a laboratory inasmuch as it offers opportunities for observation and practice and experimentation; "the new nation is a testing ground for socioeconomic theories"; "Pakistan is a laboratory for studying the use of American for the unity of compound pronouns. Examples (2-3), (6) and (9-11) still illustrate discontinuity in prepositional phrases, and in example (13) the first reciprocal expression is also a discontinued prepositional complement. In my data the first compound units of each other are attested in the 1540s in the letters of two London merchants (examples 15-16), but we must not forget that these brothers also used the discontinued forms, as example (2) indicates. The CEEC occurrences show that the grammaticalization of each other began earlier than it seemed in a study based on The Helsinki Corpus (Raumolin-Brunberg - Kahlas-Tarkka: forthcoming). One another developed into a fixed phrase later on, as the first instances of one unit only stem from the 1620s, illustrated in example (17), in which both variants appear side by side. Its late appearance in the data may also be accidental, since we can find a couple of instances in Shakespeare's language, the earliest of which from 1592 is given in example (18). The spelling error of example (19) may have different interpretations. It may reveal the writer's non-recognition or misinterpretation of the elements of the phrase and hence it might serve as evidence of change. A comparison between the prepositions used in single-unit and discontinous phrases does not reveal any pattern, since the same prepositions appear in both types. Neither does the difference mentioned by Quirk et al. (1985: 364), viz. reference to two or more participants, seem to be decisive. During the earliest times there was a slight tendency for each other and (the) one the other to be preferred in reference to two, and one another in reference to many, but the limited size of the corpus does not allow any far-reaching conclusions. The forms of the pronouns might suggest differences in their definiteness. The data do not support this idea, and in fact all referents, let alone their sets, seem relatively well-known to both speakers and hearers. There may be some resemblance with the generic reference here, for which both definite and indefinite expressions can be used (e.g. Chesterman 1991: 78; for further discussion on pronominal reference, see Raumolin-Brunberg - Kahlas-Tarkka: forthcoming). 3.3 Quantitative aspects Table 1 gives the incidence of one another, (the) one the other and each other in the CEEC and Early Modem English part of the HC. The total in the CEEC is 126 and in the HC 85. As mentioned earlier, Quirk et al. (1985: 365), using the Brown Corpus, regard the reciprocals as rare linguistic elements, giving their joint frequency as c. 14.9 per 100,000 running words. The Helsinki Corpus average frequency of 14.5 does not deviate much from this, but these pronouns are rarer in the CEEC at 8.1 occurrences per 100,000 words. There may be several explanations of these frequency differences. First of all, the corpora corpora plural form of corpus. corpora albicantia see corpus albicans. corpora arenacea sandy or gritty bodies, found in the pineal body; appear to be of glial or stromal origin; have the structure of are different, the Brown and HC being multi-genre corpora, while the CEEC only represents one genre. The reciprocals may be more common in genres other than correspondence. On the other hand, it may also be that letters, which are close to the spoken idiom, employ a broader variety of other reciprocal expressions, as examples (1-4) and (7-11) show. We must not forget that, beside the grammaticalized compound pronouns, reciprocity could and can be expressed by an open-ended set of other forms. Both the CEEC and HC show growth in the general frequency of the reciprocal pronouns. This is obviously due to the increasing use of the three items selected for the examination. Table 1 also shows that, of the three alternatives, one another is the most frequent until the last section of the Helsinki Corpus, during which each other becomes slightly more common. A change has taken place between Early Modem and Present-day (American) English, since the Brown Corpus contains 2.5 times more instances of each other than one another. Could we then single out genres or groups of people favouring one or another alternative? The Helsinki Corpus gives a relatively even distribution between the oral and literate genres. During the first subperiod, for example, the instances of each other and (the)one the other all represent different genres, and even the eleven occurrences of one another come from four genres. The present-day stylistic difference mentioned in the introduction appears not to have developed m Early Modem English. As regards different people, one distinction emerges: women prefer one another, so that the first instance of each other in a woman's letter in the CEEC does not appear until the 165 Os. There are no examples of (the) one the other in women's letters. This might suggest that one another is the most colloquial col·lo·qui·al adj. 1. Characteristic of or appropriate to the spoken language or to writing that seeks the effect of speech; informal. 2. Relating to conversation; conversational. alternative, since women's letters are practically all very private family letters, and women, owing to owing to prep. Because of; on account of: I couldn't attend, owing to illness. owing to prep → debido a, por causa de their low level of education, did not command formal registers. Nevertheless, a closer look at the data reveals that it is better to talk about individual preferences than variation between social groups. For instance, one of the earliest women writers, Aphra Behn Aphra Behn (July 10, 1640 – April 16, 1689) was a prolific dramatist of the Restoration and was one of the first English professional female writers. Her writing participated in the amatory fiction genre of British literature. , differed from her female contemporaries by favouring each other during Restoration times, while (the) one the other scores relatively high in Table 1 thanks to three male letter-writers, John Holles, Earl of Clare Earl of Clare is a title that has been created three times in British history. It was first created in the Peerage of England in 1624 for John Holles, 1st Baron Haughton. For more information on this creation, see the Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne (1694 creation). , Henry Oxinden of Barham and Bishop Brian Duppa. Finally, let us return to the issue of compounding. Table 2 shows the breakdown of the prepositional phrases into the old discontinued type (one with another) and the new compound type (with each other). Both corpora testify to the same development: one another begins to develop into one unit after 1620, but considerable variation persists throughout the data. (The) one the other does not become a compound pronoun at all, while each other has practically completed the grammaticalization process by Restoration times. 4. Discussion and conclusion It may seem a waste of time to spend much energy on a pair of infrequent peripheral pronouns. In fact, they only become interesting in the larger context of grammaticalization in the pronoun category. The reciprocals serve as a further example of what went on at the margins of this category in Early Modern English. Raumolin-Brunberg -- Kahlas-Tarkka (forthcoming) show how English develops two parallel series of indefinite compound pronouns with singular human reference. The pronouns with -body (e.g. anybody) and those in -one (e.g. everyone) complete their series so that they cover all four pronoun types: assertive (some-), non-assertive (any-), universal (every-) and negative (no-). Rissanen (forthcoming) explores the pronominalization of one, and shows how the prop-word and the generic pronoun especially increase their frequencies, while some older uses radically diminish. Peitsara (forthcoming) accounts for the regularization reg·u·lar·ize tr.v. reg·u·lar·ized, reg·u·lar·iz·ing, reg·u·lar·iz·es To make regular; cause to conform. reg of the use of the reflexive pronouns. It is not unexpected that grammaticalization takes place among the less prototypical members of a category (Raumolin-Brunberg 1994). Different types of grammaticalization also proceed in parallel, so that certain grammatical items evolve from lexical ones (e.g. the pronouns in -body) and some other grammatical elements from less grammatical ones (e.g. those in -one). The indefinites and reciprocals share the interesting characteristic that they both. develop two parallel forms with approximately the same sense and sphere of usage, suggesting that economy is not necessarily a goal that languages strive after. On the other hand, synonymous expressions tend to acquire different stylistic or social characteristics in the long run, so that free variation does not pertain per·tain intr.v. per·tained, per·tain·ing, per·tains 1. To have reference; relate: evidence that pertains to the accident. 2. in language for long, if at all. On the whole, what these grammaticalization processes lead to is large-scale specialization. Middle English peripheral pronouns seemed to have broader and more diffuse areas of use. This sorting out is also evidenced by the fact that many of the earlier alternative ways of expressing reciprocity discussed in this paper were also specialized later on for different purposes. Every other today means 'every second' and 'all the rest' (determiner use), either one of two', and the one...the other is used in symmetrical expressions With two known referents. On the other hand, there may also be non-linguistic constraining factors for the temporal frame of some of these changes, including the increase in weak-link social networks, which the Milroys (Milroy -- Milroy 1985; J. Milroy 1992) claim are channels for the diffusion of sound change. There are on-going morphological changes with steepening S-curves 1640-80, which could be interpreted as evidence of the effect of the Civil War and the Interregnum INTERREGNUM, polit. law. In an established government, the period which elapses between the death of a sovereign and the election of another is called interregnum. It is also understood for the vacancy created in the executive power, and for any vacancy which occurs when there is no government. on the growth of weak links and hence also on the spreading changes in the speech community (Raumolin-Brunberg: forthcoming). One of these is the increasing use of the pronouns in -body. Reciprocal pronouns may also belong to this set of changes. Finally, we could have a look at what happened after 1700. In the area of peripheral pronouns a couple of developments may be discerned without detailed research. The assertive use of one ('someone') has given way to the indefinite compound pronouns (someone and somebody). The indefinites with other as an element have become rarer, e.g. any other meaning 'anyone else', another and some other 'someone else', none other 'no one else', while each other and every other have persisted in their specialized meanings. Despite Lass's (1980) strong arguments against functional explanations, one does come to mind, viz, the need to lessen the functional load of both one and other, which had been in such broad use. On the other hand, it is tempting to suggest that the indefinites with other might form such junk as some time in future might become available for some other linguistic purposes (Lass 1990).
Table 1
The reciprocal pronouns in the Corpus of Early English Correspondence
and The Helsinki Corpus of English Texts
CEEC HC
1560- 1620- 1500- 1570- 1640-
1619 1681 1570 1640 1710
One another
Object/Genitive 6 29 1 6 4
Prep. Phrase 14 32 10 18 13
Total 20 80% 61 60% 11 61% 24 80% 17 46%
(The) one the other
Object/Genitive 0 7 0 0 0
Prep. Phrase 2 14 4 2 1
Total 2 8% 21 21% 4 22% 2 7% 1 3%
Each other
Object/Genitive 2 9 1 4 6
Prep. Phrase 1 10 2 0 13
Total 3 12% 19 19% 3 17% 4 13% 19 51%
Total 25 101 18 30 37
Frequency per 100,000w 4.2 10.4 9.5 15.8 21.6
Table 2
Prepositional phrases: development of compound units
CEEC HC
1560- 1620- 1500- 1570- 1640-
1619 1681 1570 1640 1710
One another
Discontinued 14 15 10 18 8
Compound unit 0 17 0 0 5
Total 14 32 10 18 13
(The) one the other
Discontinued 2 14 4 2 1
Compound unit 0 0 0 0 0
Total 2 14 4 2 1
Each other
Discontinued 0 1 2 0 0
Compound unit 1 9 0 0 13
Total 1 10 2 0 13
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