Recent Doctoral Dissertation Research on Gifted.

In the past year, at least a dozen new dissertations were published in abstract form by University Microfilms International detailing studies of strategies for working with gifted students. Such intervention investigation is particularly valuable at this time, when so many gifted youngsters are currently receiving their schooling in conventional as well as special institutions.

Inclusion in Regular Classes

To what extent can the gifted and talented student be challenged in the regular classroom with mixed levels of ability among students? Limited educational funds, the attitude that gifted students can do without special services, and a push for heterogeneous grouping of students have led to teacher frustration. Either students are all alike and can be taught the same, or they are different and need adapted instruction. In response to this dilemma, Mustard Seed Project was developed and supported by a grant from the Javits Gifted and Talented Students Education Program to train teachers to differentiate for student needs by curricular adaptations. Recognizing that teachers, like students, are at various levels of proficiency and readiness for information and methods, the training for teachers modeled the individualization process for each learner's level, pace, and style. A follow-up support system of human and material resources supported the difficult transition required by change. The sites participating in this study were all rural, ethnically diverse, and economically disadvantaged.

Malorni (1997) examined the efficacy of inclusion with gifted children assigned to the regular classroom. Three research questions guided this study: (1) Are there effective inclusive practices for use with gifted children in the inclusive classroom? (2) What skills are needed to effectively foster inclusion with gifted children in the regular classroom? and (3) How will inclusion affect the role of the regular educator, gifted specialist, and coordinator of gifted education?

An instrument provided the chief data collection for the study. It was completed by county coordinators of gifted education from rural, urban, and suburban regions across Ohio. Data from written discourse, audio cassettes, and interviews were analyzed for thematic patterns using descriptive statistics and content analysis approaches. What emerged were eleven promising practices and five themes or process skills, all of which were central to successful inclusion with gifted children. Blending gifted education into an paradigm that links process skills to contexts for the delivery of services to gifted children, professional roles and leadership competencies, staff development and group process skills were examined as well as contexts for inclusion that combine curriculum and instruction competencies that address inclusion with gifted children.

The pullout model for enrichment is a program often used to provide services for gifted students. The literature frequently states that students identified as gifted who receive gifted instruction are more likely to fulfill their potential as contributing members of society. They are also more likely to perform above average on standardized tests. On the other hand, those who are identified as very able, yet do not participate in gifted instruction, are less likely to experience the same results. A review of literature revealed a large number of research studies completed on the topic of giftedness, but none that looked at the actual performance of a comparable group of students during their high school experience.

The purpose of Vecchiarelli's (1998) study was to determine if there was any difference in the high school achievement of students who had participated in an elementary gifted resource (pullout) program when compared to a very able group of high school students who did not participate in their elementary years.

In all cases, students who participated either fully or partially in the Gifted Resource Program had higher academic achievement in high school. Independent sample t - tests determined that the mean differences in performance between students who fully or partially participated in the gifted resource program (gifted students) compared with any other grouping of very able students were significant at p = .05 for all performance variables except attendance. Data on students' academic performance (achievement) showed an advantage in test scores and number of weighted courses for gifted students who participated fully or partially when compared with a very able group of students. Participation in the program ranged from one to four years and, regardless of the number of years of participation, students who participated (fully or partially) in the program outperformed a very able group of students who did not participate at all. Students who participated in the program had higher academic achievement in high school compared with a very able group of students who had enrolled in a regular elementary academic program. The author concluded that continued wide-spread screening and selection of potential participants should be emphasized whenever possible.

In a naturalistic inquiry, Kindler (1998) explored perceptions of inclusion in ten professionals and paraprofessionals at a large elementary school in Virginia. The inquiry sought to examine and identify the major themes of importance to the participants regarding the inclusion program implemented at the school. Open-ended interviews and observations were used to gain the information.

The resulting information was based on the participants perceptions to present an overall picture of the inclusion program. The cross-case analysis revealed 25 categories. The first seven categories related aspects which directly affected teachers' teaching and contained 50% of the responses. Who was to teach what, how, and when caused much confusion and resistance during the beginning phase of the program.

The next ten categories dealt with their perceptions of specific components of the inclusion program. The themes presented here varied with each individual yet gave the perception that the program was working. The last seven categories made up less than 10% of the responses and seemed to relate to personal interests or did not affect the participants greatly. One of the biggest issues that the participants dwelled upon was how to deal with disruptive students in the classroom, especially students with severe behavior problems. If the issue of disruptive students was isolated, the perception of the participants was that the inclusion program was working.

The participants believed that academic and social needs were being met for most students in the program and that there was sufficient challenge for the gifted and high-achieving students. The program still offered the continuum of services described by Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in the least restrictive environment and that parental choice was not eliminated.

After six years of implementation, most parents seem to have accepted the program. Students also appeared to like having students with disabilities in the regular classroom. Even including the issue of disruptive students, the overall perception was that the program was working and that the benefits for all children outweighed any negative effects.

Despite the obvious importance of educating all children to their fullest potential, gifted students remain underserved and unchallenged in many educational settings (Cohen, 1997). Gifted students spend much, if not all, of their time in the regular classroom, where the teachers have usually received little or no preservice or inservice training in gifted education. Obviously, teachers who serve gifted students need appropriate training in techniques to meet the needs of these children, particularly in strategies and resources for differentiating the regular curriculum and instruction. Peer coaching has emerged in the research literature as an effective professional development technique that encourages and enables teachers to practice and implement newly learned strategies.

Cohen's study examined whether participating middle school teachers perceived peer coaching as a useful professional development technique for acquiring curricular and instructional differentiation strategies for high ability and high achieving students in the regular classroom. Qualitative and quantitative methodologies helped to describe these teachers' perceptions of the training and supported practice of peer coaching. Key participants in this study were middle school classroom teachers; additional participants were district administrators, peer coaches, students, and parents.

Findings supported the use of principles of peer coaching for the development of new strategies. Participating teachers reported positive perceptions of peer coaching and its usefulness in acquiring and implementing differentiation strategies. Quantitative data indicated conflicting perceptions among teachers, students, and parents about the amount of challenge and differentiation initially provided to high ability middle school students. Qualitative data yielded three emergent themes: (1) the variety and contradiction of teachers', students', and parents' perceptions throughout the study; (2) the initial absence of a common definition and shared understandings of differentiation among participants; and (3) the nature of change and the time and training needed for the strategies of differentiation to be widely implemented by classroom teachers.

Problem Solving 

How do gifted students solve problems? What strategies do they employ? Cassidy (1998) studied, analyzed, and described the problem-solving strategies of an intact class of 20 sixth graders enrolled in a language arts class for gifted students. The researcher also investigated the use of problem-solving journals while problem-solving, the level of awareness of problem-solving

strategies these students demonstrated, and the students' evaluation of their capabilities as problem solvers during the study and six months after its completion.

A study of two novels with a theme of survival in life-threatening situations encouraged students to discuss their concerns for the future. By using affinity groups, students first identified the environment as their primary area of concern. They then identified three specific areas, regular habits, marine habitats, and animal testing, for further study. Groups were formed for each identified area and problem-solving sessions were audiotaped. Students recorded their activities and thoughts during the problem-solving process in their journals.

Interviews and questionnaires at the beginning, end, and 6 months after the completion of the project helped Cassidy (1998) determine the students' levels of awareness of both strategies used and the self-evaluation of individual abilities as problem solvers. The strategies used were identified by analyzing protocols of the transcripts of problem-solving sessions and of individual problem-solving sessions. Transcripts of problem-solving sessions yielded 4,484 responses, while 944 responses were coded for the journals. Patterns emerged from collating and analyzing interviews and questionnaires. The gifted students were strategic problem solvers who believed that the problem-solving journal was beneficial for both organizational and personal reasons. They were aware of their own problem-solving strategies and were able to rate themselves as problem solvers.

To promote moral judgment of fourth and fifth grade gifted students, Christian (1998) examined two experimental treatments. Students in one experimental group used a curriculum entitled The Template, while students in the other experimental group participated in moral dilemma discussions. Changes in moral reasoning in the two experimental groups were compared with students who received no deliberate intervention.

Pretest results indicated that there were no statistical differences between groups. In addition, changes in thinking for these students may not be evident on tests used in a 5-week period. Although there may be differences, they were not detected by the post test results. Qualitative results, however, supported the possibility that moral development may be impacted. Analysis of exit interviews with teachers and students indicates that The Template and moral dilemma discussion may be effective strategies in promoting moral judgment in elementary gifted students, but further research is needed in this area. Christian suggested that perhaps the course of the intervention in future studies should be extended to a semester to provide more opportunities for students to develop deeper insights into the reasoning process surrounding moral judgment.

Learning and Teaching Styles

The purpose of Merante's (1997) dissertation was to determine which instructional delivery methods were used in Blue Ribbon middle schools to provide gifted students with an appropriate education. Enrichment, ability grouping, independent study, acceleration, and mentoring were the five common instructional strategies studied.

Research data were obtained through personal interviews with an administrator representing each middle school. The subjects explained how they utilized these common instructional strategies in their schools, how they measured the success of these strategies, and what, if any, training was provided for the teachers to use them.

Suggestions for developing or improving gifted programming practices were developed from the data. Among the findings were: (1) Each middle school utilized enrichment, ability grouping, independent study, and acceleration; (2) The two schools with the highest per capita income level also used mentoring; (3) There was no formal evaluation procedure in place to determine the success of the program nor were there any plans to develop such; (4) Gifted programs were considered successful if parental needs were met; (5) The gifted education teacher and the principal made decisions regarding the instructional strategies used in the program; (6) There was a concern among administrators that students who were not truly gifted were identified as such and admitted into gifted education programs due to parental pressure; (7) By reviewing the demographics and the number of students enrolled in gifted support programs, the two school districts with the highest per capita income also had the most students identified as gifted.

Pourboghrat Afiat (1997) measured the amounts of discrepancy between learning and teaching styles of 304 highly gifted, gifted, and high ability students who were enrolled in differentiated mathematics classes, grades 9 through 12, and their teachers. This was to investigate the relationship between teacher-student similarity scores and students' achievement scores and attitude toward mathematics. The results indicated that the degree of similarity between teachers' and students' preferences on discussion style had a positive significant relationship to highly gifted students' achievement scores. In addition, there was a significant positive relationship between teacher-student similarity score on simulation learning style and students' achievement score. The findings also showed that the degree of similarity between teaching/learning preferences on some styles had a positive significant relationship and in some other styles had a negative significant relationship to different aspects of students' attitude toward mathematics. However, there existed some similarity among highly gifted, gifted, and high ability students' preferred learning styles.

All three groups preferred discussion as their number one choice of learning. Unfortunately, teachers' and differentiated mathematics students' choice of styles did not match. Teachers' most preferred teaching style was lecture which was identified by students as one of the least preferred learning styles measured.

Many researchers have investigated the differences in learning style of gifted students. However, few empirical studies reveal which instructional strategies are either most preferred or most effective for students identified as having exceptional academic ability or talent. Santano (1996) investigated the difference(s) in social studies achievement and attitude of fourth grade gifted students taught through traditional instructional methods and Contract Activity Packages. Through a multivariate analysis of variance employing a repeated measures (counterbalanced) design data were analyzed to determine whether a correlation existed between perception, design and the sociological elements on students' achievement on or attitudes toward Contract Activity Packages. The MANOVA revealed that there were significant effects for CAPs vs. Traditional instruction. The MANOVA did not reveal significant differences between the perceptual, design and sociological elements with instructional strategies.

Gifted programs have been a subject of controversy in this country for many years. Not regulated by any federal mandate and not a required service under Public Law 94/142, the delivery model offered and the curriculum delivered to gifted students depends totally upon the philosophy of the school system where these students are enrolled. A common misconception about gifted students is that they are automatically destined for high achievement because of their abilities and do not need special attention. These learners may need less direct instruction than other learners, but the assumption cannot be made that they need no explicit instruction. Educational strategies and materials of an effective intervention were investigated by Ginn (1998) for use in a gifted classroom.

Ginn used a quasi-experimental, nonequivalent pretest-posttest control group design in this investigation. The purpose was to evaluate the effectiveness of an instructional program designed to improve writing and thinking skills when used with gifted students. The independent variable in this investigation was the type of instruction given regular, non-explicit gifted instruction for each of the three control groups and Direct Instruction for the experimental group. The dependent variables were the Test of Written Language-3 and the New Jersey Test of Reasoning Skills.

Statistical analysis of the data collected during this study showed a significant improvement in the writing skills of gifted fifth graders who were instructed using a Direct Instruction program. No significant difference was found in the reasoning skills of these gifted fifth graders. However, all groups showed improvement in reasoning from pretest to post test.

McGee (1996) investigated five dependent measures: fluency, syntax, range, diversity and organization, while studying the effectiveness of goal setting and attributional feedback on self-efficacy for writing and writing achievement of gifted underachieving students. Students in grades 3, 4, and 5 participated.

The results indicated that a systematic writing instruction program increased self-efficacy for writing. In addition, the self-efficacy strategies of goal setting and attributional feedback improved self-efficacy and increased some areas of writing achievement. The dependent measures most affected were fluency, syntax and organization. The students in this study did not improve their levels of vocabulary. This study included many practical applications for teachers to use in a class-room setting.

The Davalos (1997) study explored the impact of the teacher's individualized practices on the gifted child in the regular mixed ability elementary classroom. Profiles of six gifted students with high potential were developed using interviews and classroom observations. The research questions sought to determine the extent of the gifted child's intellectual challenge, opportunities for creative expression, exploration of in-depth self-selected topics of interest, and social and emotional satisfaction in adapted classrooms.

Emerging from students' responses are the following themes: The nature of the gifted child, the impact of gender on the experience, the impact of the rural setting, common abilities and interests, their sources of support, and their appreciation for individualized instruction. The most compelling finding is the high degree of satisfaction expressed by these students when learning contains the adaptation for rate and student choice.

REFERENCES

Cassidy, L. S. (1998), (Ph.D., Fordham University, 1997). Problem-solving strategies of gifted sixth graders in the context of addressing future concerns. (274 pages.) Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (9-A), 3402. Order no. AAG 98-08998

Christian, S. D. L. (1998) (Ph.D., University of New Orleans, 1997). Promoting moral judgment in fourth and fifth grade gifted students. 193 pages. Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (8-A), 2981. Order no. AAG 98-07498

Cohen, C. S. (1997) (Ph.D., The University of Connecticut, 1997). The effectiveness of peer coaching on classroom teachers' use of differentiation for gifted middle school students. 326 pages. Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (6-A), 2158. Order no. AAG 97-37400

Davalos. L. R. A. (1997) (Ph.D., Texas A&M University, 1996). The impact of teacher training for individualization on highly gifted students in heterogeneous classrooms. 115 pages. Dissertation Abstracts International. 57 (6-A). Order no. AAG 96-34726

Ginn, P. V. N. (1998) (Ph.D., Georgia Stale University, 1997). An examination of the effectiveness of the "reasoning and writing" direct instruction program with gifted fifth-grade students. 75 pages. Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (8-A), 3084. Order no. AAG 98-04385

Kindler, M. D. (1998) (Ed.D., University of Virginia, 1997) Perceptions of inclusion at Bigge Elementary School. 210 pages. Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (2-A). 455. Order no. AAG 98-24263

Malorni. V. P. (1997) (Ph.D., Kent State University, 1996). Inclusion and gifted education: A descriptive study of policies and promising practices. 208 Pages. Dissertation Abstracts' International. 57 (12--A), 5038. Order no. AAG 97-16991

McGee, S. J. (1996) (Ed.D., Florida International University, 1996). The effects of goal setting and attributional feedback on self-efficacy for writing and writing achieving. 134 pages. Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (4-A), 1561. Order no. AAG 996-26451

Merante, A. F. (1997) (Ed.D., University of Pittsburgh, 1996). Instructional strategies for the gifted child in Pennsylvania middle schools. 167 pages. Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (7-A), 2837. Order no. AAG 96-37866

Pourboghrat Afiat, F. (1997) (Ph.D., The University of Nebraska - Lincoln, 1997). Learning styles-teaching strategies similarity scores and their relationship to achievement and attitude of gifted mathematics students. 144 pages. Dissertation Abstracts International, 58 (6-A), 2122. Order no. AAG 97-36945

Santano, T. (1996) (Ed.D., St. John's University, 1996). Effect of contract activity packages on social studies achievement and attitude of fourth-grade gifted students. 130 pages. Dissertation Abstracts International, 57 (6-A), 2346. Order no. AAG 96-34690

Vecchiarelli, M. J. (1998) (Ed.D., Arizona State University, 1998) A longitudinal study of the effects of the MESA Public School elementary gifted resource program. 168 pages. Dissertation Abstracts International, 59 (12-A), 411. Order no. AAG 98-25779

Larry Geffen is Associate Professor Emeritus of Special Education, Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti.